Essays DOI: 10.1002/anie.201105425 History of Chemistry Fritz Haber: The Damned Scientist** Magda Dunikowska* and Ludwik Turko* ammonia · poison gas · Haber, Fritz · history of science Dedicated to the Fritz Haber Institute, Berlin, on the occasion of its 100th anniversary A Portrait and a Monograph The even row of portrait photographs of Lower Silesian Nobel Prize winners displayed on the wall of the club Salon S´ la˛ski, or Silesian Salon, one of the citys magic places, right across the street from the Baroque main building of the Wrocław University, is rather unorthodox as far as the standards of picture exhibitions go. Two of the laureates observe the coy interior of the club having assumed postures that are somewhat unusual for respectable learned men: hanging upside down. One of the two is Philipp Lenard, the Figure 2. Haber’s portrait, upside down in Salon Slaski. World War I battlefields. In the gallery of famous people tracing their origins to Wrocław (formally named Breslau), few are as controversial, as complex, or as tragic as Fritz Haber. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1919 for developing a method for the direct synthesis of ammonia Figure 1. Wrocław Salon Slaski interior with Nobel Prize winners. from its elements: hydrogen and nitrogen. The reaction made possible industrial-scale production of artificial fertilizers to provide grain crops with necessary nitrogen. For hundreds of cathode ray discoverer who subsequently developed the millions around the world, the discovery averted the specter conception of creative “Aryan physics” as opposed to of famine and linked Habers name with the concept of secondary and mendacious “Jewish physics”. The other one “bread from air”. It would be difficult to find a better is Fritz Haber, who invented a method for synthesizing illustration of Alfred Nobels last will, which instructed his ammonia and later pioneered the use of poison gases on heirs to bestow prizes on those who confer the greatest benefit on mankind. Less than a decade after enabling the production of bread [*] L. Turko from air, Fritz Haber pioneered the use of deadly poison gases Institute of Theoretical Physics, University Wrocław on the battlefields of World War I. He personally oversaw the pl. M. Borna 9, 50-205 Wrocław (Poland) first successful chlorine gas attack on the French and English E-mail: [email protected] lines at Ypres in April 1915. His passion and commitment led M. Dunikowska Wrocław (Poland) to the association of Habers name with the notion of “poison E-mail: [email protected] from air”. [**] We are grateful for comments and suggestions kindly provided to us The authors of Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European by Gerhard M. Oremek (Frankfurt), Bretislav Friedrich (Berlin), City, Norman Davies and Roger Moorhouse, dot the is and Adam Jezierski (Wroclaw). cross the ts: “Fritz Haber (1868–1934) … earned the name of 10050 2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 10050 – 10062 Germanys ”Doctor Death“. After studying in Berlin, he returned to Breslau to take over his fathers business, but tired of merchant life and opted for an academic career. Though largely self-taught, he lectured at the Technical Highschool in Karlsruhe before being appointed Professor of Physical Chemistry … At the outbreak of war in 1914, he placed the institute at the disposal of the government and became involved in the development of chemical weapons. Less than a year later, on 22 April 1915, Haber personally directed the German chlorine gas attack at Ypres. His wife and fellow chemist, Clara Immerwahr, committed suicide in protest at his work, but he pressed on undeterred. He was later to be involved in the development of ”Zyklon B“.[1] In the light of the above, it would seem quite fair and Figure 3. Breslau: Ohlauer Stadtgraben mit Liebichshçhe. proper to hang the Germanys “Doctor Death”, in effigy, not only upside down but also facing the wall. Before doing that, however, and before embarking on an anti-Haberian crusade, science. Its outwardly manifest growth proceeded in a climate replete with easy moralistic indignation,[2] it is worthwhile of immediate industrial-scale application of chemical patents, taking a closer look at this character, in whose story crystal- which was made possible by the collaboration of university lized the key challenges and phobias of his time. To begin laboratories, but in a way evoked echoes of alchemy. The with, it is reasonable to put aside Microcosm, at least as a murky yearning for power promised affluence, unmindful of source of knowledge about Fritz Haber. Describing a the risk of unleashing forces that could spiral out of control graduate of the University of Heidelberg with a Ph.D. in and push the world into the turmoil of destruction. The city, chemistry from Berlin as “self-taught” is rather precarious, at rapidly growing ever prettier, seemed to be inhabited by a least as much as is calling the Technische Hochschule genius loci, a kind of guardian spirit of the place, protecting its Karlsruhe a high school. It would be as appropriate and residents. The genius loci may have been present at the bed of informative to call Polands Szkoła Głwna Handlowa a trade high school or the cole Normale Suprieure in Paris an ordinary high school. In actual fact, this scientist who has become a black legend, his decisions, and his fate deserve a fair and objective analysis for at least two reasons. Firstly, because of the character, talent, and achievements of this extremely complex personality who was a true hero of his time. Secondly, because such analysis provides an opportunity to gain an insight into the beginnings of the era that turned scientists and industri- alists into new political players, that is, our present time. The figure of Fritz Haber, like a lens, brought into focuses all of the tough dilemmas of abandoning the romantic vision of history, still alive during his lifetime. Let us treat him then as a window into the Wrocław/Breslau and the Europe of that time with their conflicts, hopes, and achievements, and into Figure 4. Breslau: Tauentzienplatz. the point where a paradigm shift took place marking one of the major civilizational turning points: the world would never be the same after Habers inventions; much like the world would never be the same after the breakthroughs of his friend Einstein. Todays landscape with millions of shops selling fresh packaged foodstuffs, restaurants and fast-food outlets mushrooming on all continents and even the most remote islands, the landscape that is, as it were, our natural environ- ment, has come into being as a consequence of none other than Habers work. Fritz Haber, a true Breslauer by birth, grew up in a city that was a European microcosm. Microcosm, the title chosen by the authors for the above-cited monograph of the city, aptly captures the essence of the place, including especially the fervor of late 19th century Breslauers. The city, a mixture of ethnicities, cultures, and religions, was torn between the poles of elegant urban culture and faith in the power of Figure 5. Breslau: Kaiser Wilhelm Bridge. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2011, 50, 10050 – 10062 2011 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.angewandte.org 10051 Essays a certain Breslau woman in labor who was giving birth to Fritz After Hitlers rise to power, state nationalism was Haber, the father of weapons of mass destruction but also of a supplanted by ethnic nationalism and the German Haber technology used to avert mass famine. Born into a Jewish became the Jew Haber. A year later, having left Germany, he family tracing its roots to Galicia, an area spanning todays died in Basel. At a semi-conspiratorial memorial service held south-eastern Poland and western Ukraine, Fritz Haber was at the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, whose Institute for Physical an intellectual with a posture and personality of a Prussian Chemistry and Electrochemistry Haber had directed since Junker (the landed nobility). His ammonia synthesis not only 1911, another German Nobel Prize winner, Max Planck, made it possible to mass-produce artificial fertilizers but also stressed that without Habers work on ammonia synthesis enabled industrial production of compounds needed to mass- Germany would have lost World War I after just a few months produce explosives. Haber was a fierce German patriot at a both for economic reasons, lack of food, and for military time when state nationalism was a virtue and a commendable reasons, lack of ammunition. It so happens that the reaction attitude. After the outbreak of World War I, he was convinced providing bread from air also makes it possible to produce that the shock caused by chemical weapons would force the explosives. Plancks speech was delivered to a tightly packed Entente to quickly capitulate, thus saving lives. That is where audience, mostly composed of women, professors wives. he was wrong: for over three years, millions of soldiers would They were representing their husbands, who preferred to stay continue to die in the muddy trenches of the Great War. at home choosing “the lesser evil” and “preservation of Chemical weapons, used by all the belligerent countries, did values”. not bring about any breakthrough, and “traditional” weapons were much more efficient in killing people than the chemicals. The latter would not prove their superior efficiency until their Understanding Haber application in German death camps during World War II. There are multiple roads to understanding the extraordi- nary personality of Fritz Haber. Travelling those roads are numerous contemporary historians, biographers, film makers, and artists.[3] Habers name appears in theatre plays, novels and biographies.[4] Just how it continues to intrigue and inspire to this day is evidenced by the Fritz Haber series started a few years ago.