Policing Peace Operations: Filling the security gap between military and police By Gultekin Topaktas A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate School-Newark Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in Global Affairs written under the direction of Dr. Norman Samuels: Professor and Provost Emeritus and approved by Dr. James O. Finckenauer Dr. Gregg G. Van Ryzin Dr. Keith Cozine Newark, New Jersey May 2016 Copyright © 2016 Gultekin Topaktas ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Policing Peace Operations: Filling the security gap between military and police By GULTEKIN TOPAKTAS Dissertation Director: Dr. Norman Samuels: Professor and Provost Emeritus This dissertation explores the roles of gendarmerie, police and military forces in peace operations. The primary purpose of this study is to help strengthening criminal justice system of peace operations and understanding the potential role of law enforcement organizations with military status (gendarmeries) in peace operations. Existing literature indicates that military and police capabilities of gendarmerie- carabinierie type law enforcement organizations offer a unique skill for peace operations. These types of organizations perform a range of police functions such as traffic control, criminal investigations, and general policing activities in their home countries. Such forces can be deployed under the command of the military or can be deployed in police chain of command. In conflicts and peace operations, local law enforcement forces may be unable to maintain public order and security. Generally, until arrival of police units, first intervention units to deal with a security issue are international military forces. However, if regular armed forces do law enforcement duties, it is more likely that they may either fail to maintain basic law and order or use excessive force. Military units are responsible for area security. Their training doesn’t fit for law enforcement duties. Order maintenance needs a different kind of expertise. On the other hand, civilian police forces may be insufficient to fight crimes or deal ii with violent domestic disorder in hostile, complex and instable environments. Therefore, a new generation of security force is needed. Because they have great experience in performing their law enforcement tasks in their home countries, this experience ensures important roles for them in peace missions. They can perform duties in uncertain, complex and asymmetric environment. This study utilized a mixed method approach in order to investigate the topic in question. The researcher of this study designed and conducted an online survey with 223 security experts, including army, police and gendarmerie peacekeepers, diplomats from UN and NATO, and academics whose expertise are policing and security studies. In addition to the survey, 15 interviews were conducted with 9 peacekeepers, 3 NATO and 3 UN officials. In order to explore the topic in a real world context, The United Nation Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) and the United Nation Mission in Bosnia Herzegovina (UNMIBH), in which gendarmeries were deployed and performed law enforcement duties, were analyzed in detail. Both qualitative and quantitative results indicated that gendarmeries can fill the gap between police and military since they have professional capabilities in both civilian and military affairs. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation was completed with the help and support of numerous people. First, I would like to express my gratitude to my country, Turkey, and my distinguished organization, the Turkish National Gendarmerie, for providing the scholarship to pursue my doctoral degree in the United States. I would like to convey my deepest appreciation to Dr. Norman Samuels, my adviser and the chair of my dissertation committee, who had confidence on me and gave me broader perspective on thinking about problems. Thank you for your words of encouragement, guidance and mentoring. I shall never forget your helps, tolerance and supports. I am honored and proud to be one of your students. I am thankful to Dr. James O. Finckenauer who has made valuable contributions to my work and helped me to think critically. You gave me valuable suggestions and insight. Thank you so much, Dr. Finckenauer. I am grateful to Professor Gregg G. Van Ryzin for taking time off from his busy schedule to ensure that the methodology and quantitative analysis was correct. Thank you for always having time for me whenever I barged into your office. Professor Keith Cozine’s support for this dissertation was critical for me. His terrorism knowledge was instrumental in the development of this study. Thank you for your advices and guidance. I would like to convey a special thanks to Ann Martin, Associate Director of the Division of Global Affairs. Ann, you always treated me with warmth and made me feel at home during my time in the DGA program. You were ready whenever I need your support. You continuously offered your help and friendship through this process. I will never forget your support and help. iv Finally, I would like to thank my loving wife, Eylem, for her understanding, patience, support and great self-sacrifice during this process. v To the peacekeepers who serve for the world peace vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………..ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT…………………………………………………………….iv TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................................vi LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………x LlST OF ILLUSTRATIONS…………………………………………………………………..xi CHAPTER-I .............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction to the problem ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................................. 6 1.3 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Research Questions......................................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................................. 9 1.6 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER-II .......................................................................................................................... 14 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................................................... 14 2.1 The Legal Framework for UN Peace Operations ........................................................................... 14 2.2 Evolution of Peace Operations ...................................................................................................... 18 2.2.1 Early Peacekeeping Operations (1945-1988) ........................................................................ 20 2.2.2 Peace Operation in Post Cold-War Period (1989-2009) ........................................................ 20 2.2.3 Present Peace Operations ..................................................................................................... 21 2.3 Evolution of UN Police .................................................................................................................. 24 2.4 Understanding Gendarmeries ....................................................................................................... 26 2.4.1 Turkish Gendarmerie ............................................................................................................. 28 2.4.2 Italian Carabinieri................................................................................................................... 33 2.4.3 French National Gendarmerie ............................................................................................... 34 2.4.4 European Gendarmerie Force (EGF) ...................................................................................... 35 2.4.5 Association of European and Mediterranean Gendarmeries and Law Enforcement Forces with Military Status (FIEP): ............................................................................................................. 37 2.5 Characteristics of Gendarmeries………………………………………………………………….38 2.5.1 Rise of Gendarmeries ............................................................................................................ 39 2.5.2 Concerns Regarding Democratic Policing .............................................................................. 39 2.5.3 Flexibility and Capabilities of the Gendarmeries ................................................................... 40 2.6 Potential Roles of Gendarmeries…………………………………………………………………41 2.6.1 Policing the Security Gap in Peace Operations ...................................................................... 41 2.6.2 Suitable Tool for Various Phases of Peace Operations .........................................................