ZENTRUM FÜR BIODIVERSITÄT UND NACHHALTIGE LANDNUTZUNG SEKTION BIODIVERSITÄT, ÖKOLOGIE UND NATURSCHUTZ – CENTRE OF BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE LAND USE – SECTION: BIODIVERSITY, ECOLOGY AND NATURE CONSERVATION PALAEOECOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF ECOSYSTEM DYNAMICS IN SUMATRA, INDONESIA CASE STUDIES OF TROPICAL SUBMOUNTAINS AND MANGROVES Dissertation for the award of the degree “Doctor of Philosophy” (Ph.D. Division of Mathematics and Natural Sciences) of the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen within the doctoral program Biodiversity and Ecology Submitted by Christina Ani Setyaningsih from Yogyakarta (Indonesia) Göttingen, July 2018 Thesis Committee Prof. Dr. Hermann Behling (Dept. Palynology and Climate Dynamics / A.-v.-H. Institute for Plant Sciences) Prof. Dr. Holger Kreft (Free Floater Research Group - Biodiversity, Macroecology & Conservation Biogeography Group) Prof. Dr. Erwin Bergmeier (Dept. of Vegetation and Phytodiversity Analysis / A.-v.-H. Institute for Plant Sciences) Members of the Examination Board Prof. Dr. Hermann Behling (Dept. Palynology and Climate Dynamics / A.-v.-H. Institute for Plant Sciences) Prof. Dr. Holger Kreft (Free Floater Research Group - Biodiversity, Macroecology & Conservation Biogeography Group) Prof. Dr. Erwin Bergmeier (Dept. of Vegetation and Phytodiversity Analysis / A.-v.-H. Institute for Plant Sciences) PD Dr. Dirk Gansert (Centre of Biodiversity and Sustainable Land Use / A.-v.-H. Institute for Plant Sciences) Prof. Dr. Daniela Sauer (Department of Geography - Section Physical Geography) Dr. Thomas Giesecke (Dept. Palynology and Climate Dynamics / A.-v.-H. Institute for Plant Sciences) Date of the oral examination: 02.07.2018 ‘’ All that I am, or hope to be, I owe to my angel mother’’ Abraham Lincoln I dedicated this work to my mother Yustina Endang Sumarsih – thank you for all the love, support and for believing in me through all my journey. I love you mother Table of contents SUMMARY ……………………………………………………………………………………… 1 LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND APPENDICES …………………………………………… 3 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTERS ………………………………………………………………… 7 PREFACE …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 8 General motivation and thesis aims ………………………………………………………………………… 8 References …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………………………. 9 Sumatra …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9 The climate of Sumatra ……………………………………………………………………………………. 9 The highland of Sumatra …………………………………………………………………………………... 10 The coastal region of Sumatra ……………………………………………………………………………… 12 References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14 CHAPTER 2 - THEMES OF INVESTIGATION ………………………….................................. 18 Theme 1: Volcanism in Sumatra …………………………………………………………………………… 18 Theme 2: Human History in Sumatra ………………………………………………………………………. 20 Theme 3: Mangroves and sea-level change ……………………………………………………………….... 22 References …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 24 CHAPTER 3 – PALAEOECOLOGY ……………………………………………………………. 29 The multi-proxy approach in Palaeoecology………………………………………………………………… 29 Palynology –methods and application ………………………………………………………………………. 29 Reconstruction of fire regime history ……………………………………………………………………….. 30 Multi-variate data analysis………………………………………………………………………………….. 32 Study sites – the Kerinci Seblat National Park and mangrove forest ……………………………………….. 33 References …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 35 CHAPTER 4 – PAPER 1: THE EFFECT OF VOLCANISM ON SUBMONTANE RAINFOREST VEGETATION COMPOSITION: PALEOECOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FROM DANAU NJALAU, SUMATRA (INDONESIA) ………………………………………………………………………. 39 Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40 Environmental settings of the study site ……………………………………………………………………. 43 Materials and methods ……………………………………………………………………………………… 43 Results ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47 Discussion …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 51 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 57 Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 58 Funding ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 58 Suplementary materials ……………………………………………………………………………………… 64 CHAPTER 5 – PAPER 2: FIRST PALAEOECOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF BUFFALOES HUSBANDRY AND RICE CULTIVATION IN THE KERINCI SEBLAT NATIONAL PARK IN SUMATRA, INDONESIA ………………………………………………………………………… 67 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 68 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………………………………... 68 Study area ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 72 Materials and methods ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 74 Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76 Discussion ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 83 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 87 Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 89 References …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89 Supplementary materials…………………………………………………………………………………….. 96 CHAPTER 6 – PAPER 3: RESPONSE OF MANGROVES TO LATE HOLOCENE SEA-LEVEL CHANGE: PALAEOECOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FROM SUMATRA, INDONESIA …………. 98 Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 99 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99 Study area …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 100 Materials and methods ……………………………………………………………………………………… 103 Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 107 Discussion …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 110 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 118 Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 119 References …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 119 Supplementary materials ……………………………………………………………………………………. 126 CHAPTER 7 – SYNTHESIS AND CONCLUSSIONS …………………………………………… 129 Synthesis of the main results on vegetation, climate, fire dynamics and human-landscape interactions …… 129 Concluding remarks, open questions and recommendations ………………………………………………… 132 References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 133 APPENDIX A: IDENTIFIED POLLEN, SPORES AND NON-POLLEN PALYNOMORPHS (NPP) OF THE RECORDS - COMPLETE LIST AND PHOTOS OF SELECTED TAXA …………….. 135 Appendix A1: Table of identified pollen, spores and NPPs taxa …………………………………………….. 136 Appendix A2: Plates of selected pollen, spores and NPPs taxa ……………………………………………… 141 APPENDIX B: COMPLETE POLLEN, SPORES, NPPs AND CHARCOAL RECORDS ……… 150 Danau Njalau …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 151 Danau Bento ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 156 Mendahara Ilir ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 161 DECLARATION OF ACADEMIC INTEGRITY ………………………………………………… 165 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT …………………………………………………………………………. 166 Summary I worked on this thesis with the final aim of improving our understanding of the history and dynamics of the rich and diverse ecosystems in Sumatra, Indonesia. Using multi-proxy palaeoecological methods, I focused on the long-term vegetation and fire dynamics as well as human-landscape interaction in the highlands and mangrove ecosystems in the province of Jambi. The mountain and mangrove ecosystems are an important component of Sumatra’s landscape. These highly diverse ecosystems provide numerous ecological services as well as socio-economic function, but they are also sensitive to disturbance such as climate and human activities. I use the results of my research as a point of discussion for what are the most important drivers of ecosystem change as well as ecosystem resilience and recovery. As part of the Pacific ‘ring of fire’, volcanism is one of the most important element in Sumatra and volcanic processes play an important role in the history of vegetation. A 5000 years old record from Danau Njalau in the Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP) provides first evidence on how much volcanism can impact the vegetation composition in the tropical mountain of Sumatra. Our palynological record show that the formation of the modern forest took several centuries after the volcanic deposition in the soil ended. The results also show no evidence for prehistoric human- landscape interactions in the area despite the close proximity to known megalith sites. The local fire reconstruction indicates that fire was rare for the last 5000 years and the phases of increased fire frequency could not be linked to either any of the vegetation phases or regional climatic changes. Our results overall suggest the effect of volcanism on the western side of Sumatra might be spatially and temporally more important than expected in shaping the composition and structure of these diverse rainforests. A second record from the Kerinci valley, provides a better understanding of the history of human activities, another important driver of change in Sumatra. While today rice is the main subsidence crop in Indonesia, historical evidences of its cultivation are still scarce and there is no clear understanding to when rice was first introduced. The water buffalo (Bubalus sp.) was used in wet-rice cultivation to plough wet-rice field before the introduction of machineries. Therefore, finding evidence of the presence of swamp buffaloes can hint to important information regarding rice cultivation and its introduction in Sumatra. I used palaeoecological proxies like pollen and non-pollen palynomorphs to reconstruct the history of rice and buffaloes grazing in order to improve our understanding on when human activities intensified in Sumatra. Our results from Danau Bento are in agreement with the archaeological and linguistic records of the introduction of rice and the water buffaloes husbandry with the arrival of Austronesian migrant to Sumatra about 4000