RESHAPING THE TERMS OF DEBATE: AN EXAMINATION OF THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE REAGAN ERA A thesis submitted to the Committee on Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in the Faculty of Arts and Science TRENT UNIVERSITY Peterborough, Ontario, Canada (c) Copyright by Isaac J. Millar 2014 History M.A. Graduate Program September 2014 ABSTRACT “Reshaping the Terms of Debate: An Examination of the Historiography of the Reagan Era.” Isaac Millar The Reagan era instigated a fundamentally conservative shift in the political, economic and discursive climate of America. As Ronald Reagan is a highly divisive symbolic figure in American politics, much of the historiography of his presidency has been characterized by polarized interpretations. Over the past decade there has been a noticeable shift towards more favourable and triumphal interpretations of the Reagan era. This thesis seeks to analyze the ideological shifts that have characterized the trajectory of historical writings on the Reagan era. Through employing a careful textual analysis of key works by Michael Schaller, Gil Troy and Sean Wilentz, amongst others, this study demonstrates how historiography serves us less as an objective means of understanding the past and more so as an expanding collective historical artifact that illustrates the changing currents of intellectual and political discourse. In doing so, the notion of scholarly objectivity itself is thrown into question. Keywords: Ronald Reagan, Historiography, Cold War, Reagan Doctrine, Diplomacy, Neoliberalism, Deregulation, Conservatism, Political History. ii Acknowledgments With gratitude, this thesis owes a great debt to those that have aided and inspired me throughout its completion. It would simply not have been possible without their guidance. I must personally thank the following for their dedication and encouragement: First and foremost, this thesis would simply not have been possible without the diligent help, support, honesty and feedback of my supervisor, Bryan Palmer. It is because of his guidance, historical and political insight and attention to detail that I was able to extend and challenge my level of analysis and my writing abilities and thus achieve the form that the thesis has been completed in. In addition to this, I must thank the other members of my defense committee, David Sheinin and Finis Dunaway. Without their encouragement, constructive criticisms and incisive questions, I do not believe that the thesis defense would have been as much of a resounding success or as much of an affirmative and intellectually inspiring experience as it was. I owe them greatly for their help. I must also thank Heather Murray, who served as External Examiner, for her warmth, engagement with the material and the fascinating questions that she steered the discussion during the defense. This made for a stimulating and memorable experience. This thesis also owes a great debt to Jeannine Crowe, and I am incredibly grateful for her help with formatting and online transfers of the thesis. As I had written it far away from Peterborough, this has reduced a great deal of stress and expenditure, and I simply cannot thank her enough. I also received generous help from a family friend that is unaffiliated with Trent University, Lois Marion. In the early stages of writing, she was instrumental iii in serving as a project manager, and in pointing out errors that I had made. This was of great significance, as she was instrumental in setting me on my course towards completion, and for this I am forever grateful. In addition to this, I must thank my parents, Mary-Eleanor Yack and Stephen Millar, for their endless support and encouragement. Neither were directly involved in the writing of the thesis, yet I feel that to a great extent the completion of the thesis is owed to their tremendous positivity and support in my abilities. To all of these people, the existence of this thesis is owed to you and I cannot thank any of you enough. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii A Chronology of the Reagan Era vi Introduction: Tracing the Shifts: The Reagan Era and Its Historiography 1 Chapter I: Michael Schaller and Reckoning with Reagan: A Decade of Illusions 26 Chapter II: Gil Troy and Morning in America: The Limits of Revisionism 72 Chapter III: Sean Wilentz and The Age of Reagan: A Liberal Embrace 123 Conclusion 172 Bibliography 179 v A Chronology of the Reagan Era January 20, 1981: Ronald Wilson Reagan is inaugurated as the President of the United States. As a final insult against former President Jimmy Carter, Iranian Revolutionary students release the hostages that had been held in the American embassy for 444 days immediately after Reagan takes office. February, 1981: Reagan announces his economic plan, which seeks to reduce business and income taxes by 30% within the first three years of his term, to cut the federal budget by 41 billion dollars, and to reduce funding for welfare programs, social security and various government regulatory agencies. March 30, 1981: Mentally unbalanced gun-man John Hinckley attempts an assassination against Reagan, seriously wounding him. Reagan's genial response to the traumatic situation and subsequent swift recovery leads to an out-pouring of public and bi-partisan support. This is a contributing factor to his early legislative successes. August 13, 1981: Reagan passes through his proposed budget and legislation to change the American tax code, though the bills are amended slightly. August, 1981: The Professional Air Traffic Controllers Union violates a government statute against public service striking. Reagan responds by firing 11,000 of its members and hiring replacement workers, effectively crushing the union. July 29, 1981: Congress passes a tax cut which would slash rates by 5%, 10% and 10% in consecutive years. December 1, 1981: Reagan covertly grants the CIA $19.95 million in funding to organize and militarize operations against Nicaragua's Sandinista government. This sets the stage for the training of the contra forces in the Nicaraguan civil war. December 14, 1981: Reagan publicly denounces the Polish Communist government's crack-down on the independent Solidarity union and offers stern threats against its Prime Minister. This is followed by anti-Soviet economic sanctions on December 29th. January, 1982: Reagan is confronted with the reality of a severe economic recession, the most severe downturn since the Great Depression. By November of 1982 there are 11.5 million jobless and 17, 000 business failures. May 9, 1982: Reagan instigates START (or Strategic Arms Reduction Talks) with the USSR, ultimately seeking to go farther than limiting weapons manufacturing by reducing both powers' nuclear arsenals. September 16, 1982: Reagan covertly authorizes continued funding for the Nicaraguan contra fighters against the leftist Sandinista government, in direct violation of Congress. vi October 15, 1982: Reagan signs the Garn-St. Germain Act, a deregulation initiative affecting the financial sector. This was a significant contributing factor to the criminality and ultimate collapse of the Savings and Loans industry, which would eventually cost the government billions of dollars. November, 1982: Reagan meets with nuclear scientist Edward Teller to discuss drafting of plans for a Strategic Defense Initiative, which would later be referred to derisively as “Star Wars” missile defense. Though it never materialized during his presidency, the SDI would be one of the most contentious topics that defined the Reagan Era and was a significant force in the escalation of the Cold War that characterized the early years of his presidency. Reagan publicly announces his nuclear arms orientation on March 23, 1983. December 21, 1982: The first Boland Amendment is signed to prevent and limit CIA funding to the Nicaraguan contras. March, 1983: News of the CIA's involvement in mining Nicaraguan harbours becomes public, leading to a public outcry. March 8, 1983: Reagan refers to the Soviet Union as the “Evil Empire” and declares it “the focus of evil in the modern world.” This statement, made before a large audience of evangelical Christians, defined the early tone of Reagan's escalation of the Cold War and is inextricably linked with the mythology of his presidency. April 27, 1983: Reagan announces on television his denial of links between the administration and Nicaraguan contra forces, stating that it is contrary to United States foreign policy to seek to overthrow a sovereign government. September 1, 1983: A Korean Airlines plane is accidentally gunned down by the Soviet military, killing 269 people. Reagan denounces the tragic error as a deliberate act of Soviet aggression. September 3, 1983: The Reagan administration signs the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act (TEFRA) in response to the recession, which some have argued raised taxes to historically high levels. Following the signing of the bill, America's GDP began to increase and the country emerged from the recession in 1983. October 22, 1983: Reagan covertly invades the small nation of Grenada following a Marxist coup. Despite the relative military insignificance of the attack, it was treated by the administration as a means of conquering the traumas of the Vietnam War which, according to many conservatives, had destroyed America's military will to win. October 23, 1983: A suicide-bomber drives an explosive truck into the American marine barracks in Beirut. The blast kills 241 Marines. Despite firm rhetoric, Reagan responds with a military withdrawal from the region. vii April 4, 1984: Contra fighters publicly admit to mining Nicaraguan harbors and in turn this begins to reveal the scale of United States intervention in Nicaragua. This leads to the United Nations issuing a resolution condemning the action, which was promptly vetoed by the United States. December 6, 1985: Lieutenant Oliver North announces his plan to channel profits from weapons sales to Iran towards the Nicaraguan contras.