University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 4-15-2010 Struggle In The Sunshine City: The Movement For Racial Equality In St. Petersburg Florida 1955-1968 Peyton L. Jones University of South Florida Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the American Studies Commons Scholar Commons Citation Jones, Peyton L., "Struggle In The Sunshine City: The Movement For Racial Equality In St. Petersburg Florida 1955-1968" (2010). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. https://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/1672 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Struggle In The Sunshine City: The Movement For Racial Equality In St. Petersburg Florida 1955-1968 by Peyton L. Jones A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Department of Florida Studies College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Co-Major Professor: Raymond Arsenault, Ph.D. Co-Major Professor: Gary Mormino, Ph.D. Thomas W. Smith, Ph.D. Date of Approval: April 15, 2010 Keywords: civil rights, race, organized demonstrations, protest, riots © Copyright 2010, Peyton L.Jones Table of Contents Abstract ii Chapter One: Introduction 1 Chapter Two: The Gathering Storm 6 Chapter Three: The Lawyer and the Loose Cannon 39 Chapter Four: The Great Refusal 67 Chapter Five: Epilogue 88 Bibliography 92 i Struggle in the Sunshine City: The Movement for Racial Equality in St. Petersburg Florida, 1955-1968 Peyton L. Jones ABSTRACT Recent decades have seen a shift in the focus of civil rights historiography. Building upon the exhaustive studies of national figures and events, and in search of new perspectives, many historians have concentrated on local movements often ignored or forgotten. Other than the work of a few local scholars, the civil rights movement as it occurred in St. Petersburg, Florida, has received little attention. Furthermore, the limited scholarship lacks the cohesion necessary to compare and contrast the movement with similar events throughout the state and across the nation. The story of St. Petersburg‟s active and significant struggle for social equality, placed within its proper context, adds another piece to a larger picture and continues to reveal the complex nature of the American Civil Rights Movement. ii Chapter One: Introduction Recent decades have seen a shift in the focus of civil rights historiography. Building upon the exhaustive studies of national figures and events, and in search of new perspectives, many historians have concentrated on local movements often ignored or forgotten. Other than the work of a few local scholars, the civil rights movement as it occurred in St. Petersburg, Florida, has received little attention. Furthermore, the limited scholarship lacks the cohesion necessary to compare and contrast the movement with similar events throughout the state and across the nation. The story of St. Petersburg‟s active and significant struggle for social equality, placed within its proper context, adds another piece to a larger picture and continues to reveal the complex nature of the American Civil Rights Movement. In the years following the Second World War, St. Petersburg was a burgeoning tourist Mecca and retirement haven. Between 1950 and 1960 the city‟s population increased eighty-seven percent, reaching 181,348 in 1960. Those flocking to St. Petersburg arrived in a place that seemed to live up to the picture painted in promotional leaflets and booster pamphlets: a warm, inviting community, blessed with a subtropical climate, pristine beaches, cheap land, and endless sunshine. A veritable “Sunshine City.”1 Absent from booster literature, however, were references to a substantial black population. From its earliest years, St. Petersburg‟s economy depended heavily on tourism and a black labor force to service that industry. The city‟s black underclass lived at the lowest civic stratum, confined by rigid Jim Crow laws. While the white seasonal residents and snowbirds enjoyed socializing on the city‟s famous green benches, listening to concerts in downtown Williams Park, or enjoying friendly competition at the 1 Shuffleboard Club, an army of African Americans swarmed into their hotel rooms to make beds, or into their homes to cook meals, clean the dishes, and tend to the landscaping. To most visitors, however, these workers remained invisible and their contribution to the region‟s economic development seemed irrelevant.2 City leaders justified racial oppression by framing the need to perpetuate segregation in economic terms. Black workers allowed hotels, restaurants, attractions, and the municipal infrastructure to handle the seasonal influx of tourists, yet business and governmental leaders assumed that snowbirds and their wallets would flock elsewhere if black residents became too visible. For those Detroiters concerned about blacks entering their neighborhoods back home, city leaders in St. Petersburg wanted them to feel reassured that no similar integration would darken their experience in the Sunshine City. With occasional concessions to the black community, often with a heavy dose of paternalism, the city‟s white power structure was able to deny the black community any real reform. Indeed, St. Petersburg remained one of the most residentially segregated cities in the nation at the dawn of the civil rights era. In the city‟s earliest black neighborhoods, residents formed tight-knit, insular enclaves that drew strength from the bonds forged under social oppression. By the 1950s, beyond the auspices of white St. Petersburg, existed a stratified and culturally diverse black community. Along the rippling, brick- lined 5th Ave S., in an area known as Sugar Hill, lived members of St. Petersburg‟s black elite. With roots as old as the city itself, this small yet substantial black middle-class, 1 St. Petersburg Times, May 8, 1960. 2 Arsenault, St. Petersburg and the Florida Dream, 124-125. 2 composed of physicians, clergymen, entrepreneurs, and educators, formed the backbone of the civil rights struggle.3 The epicenter of black society arose on 22nd Ave S., where the likes of Louis Armstrong and Duke Ellington performed at the Manhattan Casino, where black doctors tended to patients at the segregated Mercy Hospital, and where residents went for food and sundries, to catch a movie, go dancing, or get their hair cut. Locals dubbed 22nd Ave the “Deuces” and until the early sixties, in the earliest stages of integration, one could trace the heartbeat of black society back to this area. Yet the Manhattan Casino was not the Cotton Club in Harlem and for every black middle-class dwelling one did not have to look far to find abject poverty. In areas such as Methodist Town- where almost thirteen percent of the city‟s black population lived-dilapidated shanties stood unpainted and teeming with termites. Many homes had no indoor plumbing nor properly working electricity. Garbage piled high in front of sagging porches with rotten floorboards, lining dirt streets that turned to dust clouds on arid summer days and muddy streams during the evening thunderstorms. A handful of wealthy, politically connected white citizens owned all of Methodist Town‟s slum housing and successfully managed to strike down urban renewal legislation and thwart efforts to enforce minimum housing code requirements. The slumlords who regularly increased the rent rarely reinvested money back into the blighted neighborhood. With an average income of less than $3,000 a year, residents--in a relationship that resembled the landed gentry and the disfranchised sharecropper of earlier generations-- had no other choice but to stay put.4 3 Rosalie Peck and Jon Wilson, St. Petersburg’s Historic African American Neighborhoods (Charleston, South Carolina: The History Press, 2008), 33-34. 4 Author‟s interview with Omali Yeshitela, June 23, 2009; St. Petersburg Times, May 5, 1960, March 25, 1962. Peck and Wilson, African American Neighborhoods, 31-33. 3 Cracks in the paternalistic relationship between whites and blacks, and in the once entrenched, seemingly immutable social structure that defied life in St. Petersburg, began to appear in the 1950s. After the 1954 Supreme Court decision, Brown v. Board of Education, a number of St. Petersburg‟s black elite challenged the legality of segregated public facilities. In November 1955, shortly after several black residents were denied entrance to Spa Beach and Pool, a public recreational facility, six black citizens led by Dr. Fred Alsup filed suit against the city citing a violation of their constitutional rights. The legal battle lasted until April 1957, when the Supreme Court refused to hear the city‟s final appeal, but controversy over Spa Beach and pool continued. For almost two years, city administrators attempted to circumvent the Court‟s ruling by closing the pool any time blacks tried to use the facility. After a long standoff, Spa Beach and Pool eventually opened on an integrated basis in 1959. But the struggle had only begun. During the 1960s, homegrown civic organizations like the Civic Coordinating Committee (CCC), the Council on Human Relations (COHR), along with local incarnations of nationally affiliated organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), continued the attack on racial segregation. By the mid-1960s, after the desegregation of lunch counters and movie theaters, the objectives of the struggle were no longer clear. In 1964, lawyer Jim Sanderlin, with the support of the NAACP Legal Defense Fund, took on the cause of desegregating the school system. Organizations like the CCC and COHR fought discrimination in the work place and tried to secure 4 better job opportunities for black citizens. While many saw these two areas as inextricably linked, others abandoned the notion of integration altogether.