ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVISM, ENVIRONMENTAL POLITICS, AND REPRESENTATION: THE FRAMING OF THE BRITISH ENVIRONMENTAL ACTIVIST MOVEMENT Maxine Newlands Ph.D. 2013 i Abstract This thesis explores the relationship between environmental activism, environmental politics and the mainstream media. In exploring the power relations between government, activists and the media, this work draws on Foucauldian theories of governmentality, power and space (heterotopia). The central hypothesis is that environmental politics has witnessed a shift in power away from activism and towards environmental governance and free-market economics, nestled in a media discourse that has depoliticised many environmental activist movements. Foucault’s theories on power, biopower and governmentality are combined with a critical discourse analysis (CDA) of newspaper reports and original empirical research derived from a focus group with environmental activists. The empirical data and analysis provides original knowledge on relations between environmental activists and journalists. The premise that economics has become the dominant solution to the detriment of environmental activism movements is argued through a historical analysis of advanced liberal governments’ role in creating new green markets and instruments (‘green governmentality’ in Luke’s terms). The shift towards green governmentality has been accompanied by an increased application of state measures, from legislation and surveillance, to conflating environmental activism with terrorism, and the neologism of eco-terrorism. Journalists reaffirm such governance, and the critical discourse analysis charts the shift from positive to negative reporting in the mainstream media. However, activists also contest such power relations through social and new media, alongside traditional repertoires of protest within the space of activism, to challenge such advanced liberal discourse, and bypass traditional media practices. As neoliberalism has increasingly become the main position in environmental politics, it places activism into a discourse of deviance. The activists’ movement counters this measure through new media, liminoid practices and repertoires of protest. ii List of Abbreviations ACPO Association of Chief Police Officers BAA British Airports Authority BRICS Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa BP British (Beyond) Petroleum CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons CJA Criminal Justice Act CJB Criminal Justice and Public Order Bill CND Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament CSC Counterspin Collective CSD United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development DEFRA Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs DoE Department of Environment EMSs Environmental Management Systems EMT Ecological Modernisation Theory ENGOs Environmental Non-governmental Organisations EU ETS European Union Emissions Trading Scheme GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GEG Global Environmental Governance HACAN Heathrow Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IMF International Monetary Fund IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change iii KACAN Kew Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise LARC London Action Resource Centre MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (now DEFRA) MEAs Multilateral environmental agreements MoD Ministry of Defence NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement NECTU National Extremism Tactical Coordination Unit NEPI New Environmental Policy Instruments NFU National Farmers Union NOTRAG No Third Runway Action Group (Heathrow Airport) NPOIU National Police Intelligence Unit PCC Press Complaints Commission PPPs Public and Private Partnerships RIPA Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act SMOs Social Movement Organisations SOCPA Serious Organized Crime and Police Act (2005) TAZ Temporary Autonomous Zone TNR Trans Northern Companies UN United Nations UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework on Conventions on Climate Change WTO World Trade Organization iv Acknowledgements This thesis owes an immeasurable debt of gratitude to my supervisors, Dr Erika Cudworth and Dr Stephen Hobden. Erika and Steve have offered advice, support and restored my confidence in completing the thesis. Thanks also to Dr Abel Ugba for unwavering confidence, and to Dr Libby Lester for reading through earlier versions and providing support and guidance. I would also like to acknowledge the earlier help of Professor Heather Nunn and the present help of the E16 Cocktail Club. This research has benefited from the numerous activists and individuals I have met over the years. Special note goes to John Jordan, Dan Glass, John Stewart, Martin, Mike, Steve, Nim, Des Kay and all the other activists who have broadened my knowledge. The data is at the heart of this thesis. Their time, thoughts, disagreements and insights brought this work alive. This thesis is a small contribution to documenting the UK environmental activist movement. Lastly, but never least, my wholehearted thanks to my family and tribe. To Anna, Nick, Digger and Otto Kerridge, Si and the Wallace-Cobbs, Joey, Simon, and the Parsons – thanks for asking when writing was going well, and staying quiet through the difficult times. My family, Alan and Mo Spender, Bill and Ann Newlands, your quiet encouragement has been a constant source of support. For my parents – Mum – although Dad never lived to see this, without the free spirit, question everything, do-no-harm attitude you both instilled in me, this thesis would never exist. Blessed Be. For Stephen, thank you for opening my eyes, being there, and being my soul-mate. v Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................................................... ii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................. v Chapter One: Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 9 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 9 Environmental Activism ..................................................................................................................................17 Environmental Politics .....................................................................................................................................21 Representation as Discourse ...........................................................................................................................31 Media and Protest Power Relations ..........................................................................................................32 Theoretical Approaches ...................................................................................................................................46 Method................................................................................................................................................................51 Contribution to the Field .................................................................................................................................52 Outline of Chapters ..........................................................................................................................................55 Chapter Two: Methodology .................................................................................................................................59 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................59 Foucault, Discourse and his Archaeological Phase .....................................................................................63 Different Interpretations of Discourse .........................................................................................................70 Environmental Discourse ................................................................................................................................74 The Language of Mediatised Environmental Discourse ............................................................................82 Media, Language and Discourse ................................................................................................................84 Critical Discourse Analysis ..............................................................................................................................92 A Critique of Critical Discourse Analysis .............................................................................................. 102 Interviews and Focus Groups ...................................................................................................................... 106 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................... 111 Chapter Three: Green Governmentality, Environmental Discourse and Governance .........................