THE IMPACT OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS ON ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: A CASE STUDY OF SELECTED COASTAL SITES AND MONUMENTS IN KENYA BUSOLO NAMUNABA A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS (ARCHAEOLOGY) */ UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI 2003 DECLARATION I certify that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University. This thesis has been submitted for examination with our approval as University V Supervisors. Mr. Gilbert K. Wafula DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my father Henry W. Namunaba and mother Perita Nasambu for their care and concern in my upbringing. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work is a result of enormous human and financial resources as well as vigorous academic exercise. Quite a number of people have facilitated the successful completion of this thesis. However, due to limited space it is impossible to name them all. Special tribute goes to the University of Nairobi, and particularly, the Department of History for granting me the opportunity to pursue postgraduate studies in Archaeology. I wish to thank the members of the Department of History starting with the Chairman, Professor Milcah A. Acholla and Professor Vincent G. Simiyu for their great concern and encouragement. 1 am particularly grateful to Professor Henry W. Mutoro whose moral support and supervisory duty has seen me through this scholarly work. His financial support enabled the production of this thesis. Mr. Gilbert K. Wafula, my Supervisor, deserves special mention for his sense of duty. Special thanks go to Dr. Ephraim Wahome and Mr. David M. Kyule for their ideas and positive criticism. I owe thanks to the National Museums of Kenya, especially to its Director General Dr. George O. Abungu, for financing the entire fieldwork without which this work would not have been possible. I am indebted to Dr. Paul Lane of thj; British Institute in East Africa for his ideas and library resources. His conceptual understanding of the problem of cultural resources management practice in Africa was very relevant to this work. I wish to record my gratitude to my father and mother whose dedication and tireless devotion to my education has enabled the production of this work. The Office of the President deserves appreciation for issuing me a research permit that allowed timely commencement of the fieldwork. My companion, Hannah Chao, deserves mention for her encouragement towards my academic career. Finally, I thank God for enabling the completion of this work in harmony. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Declaration--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- i Dedication---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ii Acknowledgements---------------------------------------------------------------------------------iii Table of Contents----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv List of Illustrations---------------------------------------------------------------------------------vii Abstract------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION-----------------------------------------------------------1 1.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1.2 Research Problem-------------------------------------------------------------------------------3 1.3 Goals and Objectives---------------------------------------------------------------------------4 1.4 Research Hypothesis----------------------------------------------------------------------------4 1.5 Theoretical Framework------------------------------------------------------------------------5 1.6 Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW------------------------------------------------ 7 2.1 Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7 2.2 Comparative Literature on Archaeological Heritage Destruction rfnd Management-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7 2.3 Early Research Work done------------------------------------------------------------------16 2.4 Current Research------------------------------------------------------------------------------17 2.5 Conclusion---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLGY------------------------------------------------------ 18 3.1 Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------18 3.2 Archaeological Survey------------------------------------------------------------------------18 3.2.1 Phase One: General Survey---------------------------------------------------- 18 iv s 3.2.2 Phase Two: Intensive Survey 19 3.2.3 Phase Three: Intensive surface observation---------------------------------20 3.3 Subsurface Testing----------------------------------------------------------------------------20 3.4 Measurements----------------------------------------------------------------------------------20 3.5 Sampling Strategy----------------------------------------------------------------------------21 3.6 Data Presentation and Analysis------------------------------------------------------------ 25 3.7 Tools----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25 3.8 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 26 CHAPTER FOUR: SITE DESCRIPTION..................................................................27 4.1 Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 4.2 The Study Area------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27 4.2.1 Mtwapa Historic Site (HhJx4)-------------------------------------------------- 27 4.2.2 Jumba La Mtwana Historic Site (HhJx3)----------------------------------- 28 4.2.3 Gede Historic Site (HfKal)----------------------------------------------------- 28 4.2.4 Kitoka Historic Site (HgJx4)---------------------------------------------------- 29 4.3 Physical Characteristics of the Sites------------------------------------------------------ 29 4.3.1 Climate----------------------------------------------------------------- 29 4.3.2 Vegetation--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30 4.3.3 Geology-------------------------------------------------------------------------------30 4.4 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------31 CHAPTER FIVE: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS------------------------32 5.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32 5.2 Results of the archaeological survey------------------------------------------------------ 32 5.2.1 Mtwapa Historic Site (HhJx4)-------------------------------------------------- 32 5.2.2 Jumba La Mtwana Historic Site----------------------------------------------- 33 5.2.3 Gede Historic Site----------------------------------------------------------------- 34 5.2.4 Kitoka Historic Site-------------------------------------------------------------- 35 5.3 Surface Scatter---------------------------------------------------------------------------------35 5.3.1 Mtwapa Historic Site------------------------------------------------------------ 35 5.3.2 Jumba La Mtwana Historic Site---------------------------------------------- 36 5.3.3 Gede Historic Site---------------------------------------------------------------- 36 5.4 Subsurface testing---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37 5.4.1 Mtwapa Historic Site------------------------------------------------------------- 37 5.4.2 Jumba La Mtw ana Historic Site----------------------------------------------- 37 5.4.3 Gede Historic Site-------------------------------------------------- 38 5.4.4 Kitoka Historic Site................................................................................... 38 5.5 Measurement---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 5.5.1 Mtwapa Historic Site------------------------------------------------------------- 39 5.5.2 Jumba La Mtwana Historic Site-------------------------------------------------39 5.5.3 Gede Historic Site----------------------------------------------------------------- 40 5.5.4 Kitoka Historic Site--------------------------------------------------------------- 41 5.6 Analysis of data from survey, surface scatter and subsurface testing--------------41 5.7 Presentation of interview data------------------------------------------------------------- 48 5.7.1 Mtwapa and Jumba La Mtwana Area.....................................................48 5.7.2 Gede and Kitoka Area------------------------------------------------------------ 53 5.7.3 Visitors to the Sites Under Study----------------------------------------------- 54 5.7.4 Museum Curators and Other Employees-------------------------------------- 59 5.8 Analysis of interview data-------------------------------------------------------- 64 5.9 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67 vi / CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 68 6.1 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------68