Non-Determinism in the Narrative Structure of Video Games Marcello Arnaldo Picucci Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of English Literature, Language and Linguistics Newcastle University July 2015 Abstract At the present time, computer games represent a finite interactive system. Even in their more experimental forms, the number of possible interactions between player and NPCs (non-player characters) and among NPCs and the game world has a finite number and is led by a deterministic system in which events can therefore be predicted. This implies that the story itself, seen as the series of events that will unfold during gameplay, is a closed system that can be predicted a priori. This study looks beyond this limitation, and identifies the elements needed for the emergence of a non-finite, emergent narrative structure. Two major contributions are offered through this research. The first contribution comes in the form of a clear categorization of the narrative structures embracing all video game production since the inception of the medium. In order to look for ways to generate a non-deterministic narrative in games, it is necessary to first gain a clear understanding of the current narrative structures implemented and how their impact on users’ experiencing of the story. While many studies have observed the storytelling aspect, no attempt has been made to systematically distinguish among the different ways designers decide how stories are told in games. The second contribution is guided by the following research question: Is it possible to incorporate non-determinism into the narrative structure of computer games? The hypothesis offered is that non-determinism can be incorporated by means of nonlinear dynamical systems in general and Cellular Automata in particular. ii Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to thank all video game designers for their curiosity, constant striving for creativity and belief in the medium. Their gift to us is a unique way to experience alternatives realities. Secondly, I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisors at Newcastle University, Professor Kimberley Reynolds and Dr. Hermann Moisl. Kim’s constant interest in my ideas, her patience and intellectual support have preserved my confidence in difficult times. Hermann has shown me how to push the boundaries of my research. His input and constructive criticism have enabled me to strive for more and search for true innovation in video game narrative design. A very special thanks goes to my dear partner, Susan Huang. Her unfaltering energy and determination in believing in me have kept me afloat and motivated through the past years. An idea remains an idea until somebody shows you the hidden potential, opening up a new world of possibilities. She has helped me turn my passion into an intellectual quest. Finally, I would like to thank my parents. Their support has been fundamental for the completion of my study. iii Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iii Introduction 1 Chapter One – Nature, History and Narrative Structures of Video Games 1.1 United in its Diversity: Defining the Medium of the Video Game 6 1.2 A Sixty Year-old New Medium: A Brief History of Video Games 13 1.3 Video game Narrative Structures 22 1.3.1 Pre-established narrative structure 30 1.3.2 Discovery narratives 32 1.3.3 Sandbox narrative 35 1.3.4 Computer-generated narrative 37 1.4 Academic Divide 39 Chapter Two – Deterministic Systems 2.1 Determinism: Problems and Implications for Video Game Design 52 2.2 The History and Philosophy of Determinism/Non-determinism 58 2.3 Determinism/Non-determinism from Classical to Contemporary Physics 66 2.4 Contemporary Models of Deterministic and Nondeterministic Systems 73 2.4.1 Systems 75 2.4.2 Deterministic systems 77 2.4.3 Finite State Machines 80 2.4.4 Stochastic and Markovian Nondeterministic Systems 84 2. 5 Nonlinear Dynamical Models of Nondeterministic Systems 86 2.6 The Cellular Automaton Model 91 Chapter Three - Complex Emergent Behaviour: The Game of Life 3.1 History and development of the Game of Life 94 iv 3.2 Cellular Automata as a nonlinear dynamical system 114 3.2.1 Differences between nonlinear Cellular Automata and linear game simulations 114 3.2.2 Irreversibility and self-similarity 121 3.3 Cellular Automata Classes and Evolution 123 3.4 Examples of Cellular Automata models 126 3.4.1 Cellular Automata as a modelling tool 127 3.4.2 Particle dynamics 128 3.4.3 Gas diffusion, wave and fluid dynamics 129 3.4.4 A-Life and population growth 130 3.4.5 Traffic dynamics 132 Chapter Four - Integrating Cellular Automata in the Video Game Environment 4.1 Deterministic and Nondeterministic Game AI 134 4.1.1 Movement, path-finding and planning AI 137 4.1.2 Finite State Machines and game narrative structures 142 4.1.3 Pseudo-nondeterministic AI: Neural Networks, genetic algorithms and flocking 146 4.1.4 Escaping Determinism 151 4.2 Adding Complexity to the Video Game Environment 152 4.3 Fundamental Design Principles: Level of Integration into Processing Architecture 156 4.3.1 Computational Role 156 4.3.2 Selectivity 157 4.4 In-Game Integration 159 4.4.1 Integrating Cellular Automata in Current Game Scenarios 161 4.4.2 Creating a Containment Zone for CA-driven Game Entities 162 4.4.3 Applicability and Interactivity of Cellular Automata Configurations in Game Design 165 4.5 Game Scenarios: Suitable Genres for Cellular Automata Application 169 v 4.5.1 Open Worlds 170 4.5.2 Simulations and God Games 175 4.5.3 2-D Side Scrollers 179 4.6 Future Work: Genre and Rule Selection 181 4.6.1 Hardware setup 183 4.6.2 Software implementation: prototype, testing and optimization 184 4.6.3 Software Implementation: Gameplay 186 Chapter 5 - Conclusion 5.1 Addressing the Problem of Determinism in Game Narrative Structures 190 5.1.1 Categorization of Narrative Structures and Dependency on Game AI 191 5.1.2 Implications of Determinism for the Gaming Experience 193 5.1.3 Identification and Implementation of Cellular Automata in Game Design 195 5.2 Strength and Weaknesses of the Research 195 Bibliography 198 Ludography 217 List of Figures 225 vi vii Introduction I want a video game that tells me a different story every time I play it. I want a game that can surprise me and allow me to observe and be a participant of an evolving and continuous story, written by nobody, and emerging out of simple initial rules and conditions. I want a new kind of nondeterministic narrative architecture guiding my gaming experience. I want a story of which I am the sole, privileged actor and spectator. These statements seem to be a most appropriate way to introduce the fundamental question guiding the study that lies ahead and represent the target subjects under investigation: video games and narrative structures. Furthermore, as a gamer and a researcher, I believe the desire expressed in these statements appears to be a legitimate and meaningful one to be sought at this point in time. From a global point of view, video games have become an established form of entertainment, spreading across all types of digital and electronic platforms. They have captured the attention of academic scholars and represent the subject matter of a growing and multidisciplinary academic research. Since its inception more than half a century ago on machines long forgotten which are hard to imagine today in the digital age, the medium of the video game has undergone a constant and exponential development and can today count many achievements. From their initial experimental(but revolutionary) steps as simple monochrome dots and blips moving on a cathode-ray oscilloscope, video games are today capable of offering vast threedimensional worlds, freely navigable and populated by life-like characters or human players in the persistent game worlds of MMORPG (Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games). Once relegated to the curiosity of adults in the arcades, and subsequently appealing mostly to young audiences through the first generations of home consoles, video games have today imposed themselves on the mass entertainment market generating sales and revenues that regularly rival and surpass those of the movie industry. Mature themes have long become integrated in game design, reaching audiences of all ages, with gameplay and story content seeking to engage players on a wide range of entertainment levels, from the intense action- driven experience of the fictional global war conflicts in Battlefield 3 (DICE, 2011) to the more intellectually-oriented and slow-paced setting of a desolated island in the Hebrides in 1 Dear Esther (The Chinese Room, 2010) or the embodiment of Ayn Rand’s doctrine of Objectivism as expressed in Atlas Shrugged (1957) combined with the existence of multiple realities through the phenomenon of quantum entanglement in the Bioshock series (2K/Irrational Games, 2007-2014). From the technical point of view, most of the components pertinent to game design have witnessed significant advancements. Design elements such as sound effects, voice and music, graphics and character models, number of NPCs (non-player characters) and AIcontrolled units at once, as well as the size of game worlds, gameplay longevity and user interface have been constantly refined, their boundaries being constantly pushed so as to take full advantage of the increase of processing power available in computers. The online component is also being constantly expanded allowing players to cooperate in a large variety of multiplayer modes and to share their game sessions, scores and achievements instantly with millions of other players. In the graphical department, the pixelated monochrome beginnings of Pong (Atari, 1971), the two dimensional static worlds of Space Invaders (Taito Corporation, 1978), Pac-man (Namco, 1980) or Super Mario Bros.