REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES: The Dar-es Salaam Impact Region A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Spatial Planning, University of Dortmund in fulfilment of the requirement of the award of a Dr. rer. pol. Degree. by NIMROD SHITRAEL MUSHI Doctoral Committee: Univ. Prof. Dr. Volker Kreibich Faculty of Spatial Planning University of Dortmund Univ. Prof. Dr. Günter Kroës Faculty of Spatial Planning University of Dortmund Dr. Davis Mwamfupe Head: Department of Geography Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of Dar es Salaam ii Declaration I Nimrod Shitrael Mushi, hereby declare that this thesis submitted and presented to the Faculty of Spatial Planning, University of Dortmund, is a product of my own four years research and where it is beholden to the work of others, acknowledgement has been made. Nimrod Shitrael Mushi July 2003 iii Acknowledgement The present study could not have been carried out without the support of my academic advisors Univ. Prof. Dr. Volker Kreibich, Univ. Prof. Dr. Gunter Kröes, and Dr. Davis Mwamfupe for their patience and tireless efforts to endow me with intellectual direction and criticisms. Their constructive comments and criticisms were very inspirational and helpful for the completion of the study. I will always feel owed to them especially for their careful attention to the details, language and precision in my study. Secondly, I benefited much from discussions with Prof. Dr. Willbard Kombe, the Dean, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, and Prof. Aloycius Mosha of the University of Botswana. I therefore wish to thank them. Thirdly, I am very thankful to Drs. Aldo Lupala, Francis Bacho, Yao Yeboah, Francos Halla, Manoris Meshack and Alphonce Kyessi for their time for discussions and remarks during the writing phase both in Dortmund and at UCLAS. Their comments and advice were very constructive. Special thanks are also due to Drs. George Jambiya, Fred Lerise, Deborah Bryceson and Cecilia Tacoli for their initial inputs, which shaped the early stages of this study. I wish also to thank Dr. Deo Ndoloi and Mr. Yesaya Mweteni and Dr. Abel Mreta of the Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics of the University of Dar es Salaam who helped to improve the English. Many thanks are also due to Mr. Peter Mandwa, Marko Burra, Shaban Sheuya, and Othmar Mn'gongo for sharing fruitful discussions with me from time to time. The friendship and frequent help of Messrs. Reiner Löb, Eva Gehrmann, Johannes Lückenkötter, Eric Aligula, Alfred Kanu, Wolfgang Scholz, Richard Konteh, Luke Ikyeayionwu, Claudia Kraemer, Aniola Hädrich, and Bettina Hanel is deeply appreciated. The villagers of Mlandizi and Masaki deserve my appreciation, particularly those who participated in the interviews, for their co-operation and willingness to provide reliable information. Special thanks also go to the village leaders for facilitating the data collection exercise. In the course of preparing this thesis, Siriach Francis and Anthony Kibadu assisted at various stages, particularly in maps preparation, photographing, and data collection. I am indebted to my family, my life partner Sarah and our beloved children Isaac, Nicole and Ninela for their patience, constant support and encouragement during the four years of this research. This is the third and hopefully the last dissertation they have to endure. I would like to express my indebtedness to Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (DAAD) for granting me sandwich scholarship to study at the University of Dortmund and for their financial assistance. I am also greatly indebted to the University College of Lands and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) for vital logistical and financial support towards the study. iv Abstract Many households have spanning livelihoods that draw on rural and urban resource opportunities. Urban and rural areas are closely linked, each contributing to the other, they therefore need to be considered jointly in development planning. The absence of rural development policies that recognise and seek to take advantage of positive aspects of rural- urban linkages in the impact regions of many cities in Developing Countries is a constraint to both rural and urban development. This policy vacuum requires a study to unveil how such deficiencies have affected rural-urban linkages and in turn livelihoods in both rural and urban areas. The impact region of Dar es Salaam is very conspicuous. The impact region surrounds Dar es Salaam city, which is the country’s main point of entry and exit for goods and people and has always had an important role to play in the national development. Poor provision of socio-economic and physical infrastructure is evident in the impact region of Dar es Salaam. The poor development of infrastructure in the impact region dates back to the purpose of establishing Dar es Salaam city. There is a common agreement that the city was established as a port to receive agricultural produce and minerals from the hinterland to be exported to Europe. Consequently, the first objective of this research was to identify the types of rural- urban linkages in the impact region, describe the level of development of the impact region and the extent of rural-urban linkages. The second objective of the research was to evaluate the strength and weaknesses of rural-urban linkages in the impact region, analyse rural- urban linkages with specific focus to the city and the settlements in the impact region, and appraise its role in enhancing livelihoods in urban and rural areas as well. The third objective was to formulate a policy framework for effective rural-urban linkages and enhanced livelihoods. These issues have been investigated empirically. The research addresses the question of urban-rural linkages first from a theoretical standpoint, and thereafter illustrates it with some concrete cases at two different geographical locations. Besides, it takes a dynamic approach to rural-urban linkages by looking more closely at changes affecting the impact region livelihoods rather than merely describing the linkages between urban and rural areas. The study adopted participatory methodology tools such as focus group discussions, mobility matrix, Venn diagrams, and small-scale household surveys. These tools were put to practice in the commodity chain analysis from the production stage in the villages to the consumption stage in urban areas. This research unveils the latent potentials of rural-urban linkages in livelihood enhancement in both rural and urban areas. The observed weak rural-urban linkages and livelihoods development can be attributed to the limited local institutional development and its interplay, inadequate provision of social, physical and economic infrastructure and ineffective regional planning machinery in the impact region. Main findings in the study were: locally designed institutions are fundamental safety nets; affordable transport complements other factors; and that migration is a survival strategy in rural-urban linkages. Based on these findings, the study recommendations include: Firstly, institute planning teams to deal with the urban problems that cut across local authorities boundaries consisting of core city and the adjacent district authorities. Secondly, involve local communities to surcharge new development in the impact region v for the provision of line infrastructural facilities, such as roads, electricity and water. Thirdly, support locally designed institutions and private small-scale processing industries by formulating a policy that allows governments non-governmental organisations and donors to invest in institutions, either directly or indirectly by creating an environment friendly to the emergence of local institutions. Lastly, as regards migration of people, it is at the heart of development. Policies need to support migration by creating socio- infrastructure facilities such as schools, water, and value added processing and employment opportunities to the new areas. The report is organised in eight chapters. Chapters one to four describe the context, the conceptual framework and the research methodology. Chapter five and six present the case studies, while chapters seven and eight present the cross case analysis, policy implications and recommendations. Key words Rural-urban linkages, poverty, livelihoods, livelihoods strategies, impact region, and regional development. vi REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT THROUGH RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES: Dar-es Salaam impact region i Declaration ii Acknowledgement iii Abstract iv List of tables xi List of figures xii List of photographs xii List of maps xiii Appendices xiii 1. Rural-urban linkages, livelihoods and poverty in regional development 1 Defining rural-urban linkages 1 Significance of rural-urban linkages 2 Access to assets and rural-urban linkages 4 Rural agriculture and the urban economy 5 Poverty 6 The causes of poverty 8 Powerlessness: The institutional basis of poverty 9 Vulnerability 9 The extent of rural and urban poverty 10 Livelihoods and livelihood strategies 12 Significance of the sustainable livelihood approach 16 The link between rural-urban linkages, livelihoods and poverty 16 Rural-urban linkages in regional development 19 Rural-urban linkages: a global overview 20 Rural-urban linkages and development policies 27 The industrialisation strategy: spatial 27 Rural development strategy: spatial 29 Economic reforms 29 Planning system in Tanzania and its implications 30 Emerging patterns for rural-urban linkages 32 Growing / shrinking urban and rural poverty 32 Rapid