Master thesis JUS398 Prostitution and the free will – a critical view on consent in prostitution Candidate number: 173609 Tutor: Professor Dr. jur Jørn Øyrehagen Sunde Number of words: 37 400 01.06.2011 Foreword There have been many kind helpers along the adventure of writing this thesis, thank you all for your help. I am grateful for the financial support I have received for the writing of this thesis. I received a scholarship from the Meltzer Foundation at the University of Bergen and another scholarship from the Freedom of Expression Foundation, awarded by the Norwegian Centre for Human Rights. That support has been incredible, thanks for believing in me. The Norwegian Centre for Human Rights also furnished me with a writing place for some hectic late-winter weeks. Thank you all for your warm welcome and all your help. Thank you to Trudy Fortuin, at the Community Law Centre at University of Western Cape for helping making my stay in Cape Town become reality. And to Kate O’Regan, former Constitutional Court Judge of South Africa, for encouraging words about consent, and help in getting in touch with other researchers. A heartfelt thanks to Embrace Dignity, by Nozizwe Madlala-Routledge and her staff, for inspiration and support during my stay in Cape Town. Warm thanks to the Women’s Legal Centre by Director Jennifer Williams for my internship, and Stacey-Lee Manoek for letting me work with you on the prostitutes’ human rights project. And for taking me with you to work at the law clinic at SWEAT, Sex Worker Education and Task Force, Cape Town. Thank you to the Faculty of Law at the University of Bergen, for granting me the opportunity to write a large master. Thanks to Anne Hellum and the others at Institute for Women’s Rights Faculty of Law, University of Oslo, for support and literature. Thanks to the German Institute for Human Rights, by Dr. Nina Althoff and Heike Raabe, and for letting me use your library. Thanks to David Bilchitz at the South African Institute for Advanced Constitutional, Public, Human Rights and International Law for inspiration early in the process. Thank you to Johann Schaffer, at the Nordic Prostitution Policy Research for inspiring thoughts on prostitution from the political science view. Thank you to Professor Dr. Jørgen Aall, for inspiring and provoking discussions. Thanks to Christian for reading drafts and for your supportive comments on the process of writing a masters thesis. Thanks to Ini for technical support. Any mistakes that might be found in the text are my own. A very special thanks goes to my tutor, Professor Dr. Jørn Øyrehagen Sunde. Thank you for believing in me, for inspiring me to enter the academic world, and for guiding me through the adventure of writing this thesis. Thank you for pushing me to do more than I thought I could. Thank you for planting crazy ideas in my head, and for making me realise my potential. Last but not least, my beloved Nicky, thank you for your incredible support. You have at times believed more in me and this project than myself. Thank you for your love and devotion, and your interest in the question of prostitution. Thank you for all our talks about structure, arguments, writing process, for your help in editing and shortening the final text. Berlin, 01.06.2011. II For Auntie Gerda, because you did not get the chance. III List of abbreviations BGB – German Civil Code, Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch BMFSFJ – Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend, German Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth CEDAW – Convention on Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women DEDAW – Declaration on Elimination of all Discrimination Against Women Et. seq. – the following. FRG – Federal Republic of Germany GDR – German Democratic Republic Ibid – the cited publication, on the same page ICJ – International Court of Justice Op. cit. – the cited publication, on another page. Ot.prp. – Odelstingsproposisjon, Proposition to the Odelsting, Norwegian preparatory work SALRC – South African Law Reform Commission SoFFI – Sozialwissenschaftliches FrauenForschungsInstitut an der Evangelischen Fachhochschule Freiburg, a social science research institute StGB – the German Criminal Code SWEAT – Sex Workers Education and Advocacy Taskforce UN – United Nations ZAR – South African Rand IV Table of contents Foreword ...........................................................................................................................II List of abbreviations..........................................................................................................IV Table of contents………………………………………………………………………………………………………………V 1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................1 1.1 Presentation of the topic...........................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Presentation of the research question................................................................................................................3 1.3 Definitions.......................................................................................................................................................................4 1.4 Philosophical foundations for the regulation of prostitution in general .............................................5 1.5 Legal method..................................................................................................................................................................7 1.5.1 Relevance – choice of sources ............................................................................................................................. 7 1.5.2 International method for interpretation.....................................................................................................10 1.5.3 National methods for interpretation.............................................................................................................12 1.5.4 Harmonizing of the legal sources....................................................................................................................14 1.5.5 Reasoning behind the chosen method...........................................................................................................16 1.6 The research situation today ...............................................................................................................................16 1.7 The structure of the thesis ....................................................................................................................................17 2. The historical background of the legal regulation of prostitution.................................. 18 2.1 1850-1900: A pragmatic focus on disease .....................................................................................................18 2.2 1900-1950: A wave of moral regulation.........................................................................................................19 2.3 1950-2000: Reformed pragmatism and a new moral...............................................................................22 2.4 2000 and onwards: A new wave of regulations – pragmatism and morals side by side...........25 2.5 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................................26 3. International regulation of the legal effect of consent to prostitution........................... 28 3.1 The Convention on Elimination on all forms of Discrimination Against Women - CEDAW.....28 3.1.1 Introduction to CEDAW.......................................................................................................................................28 3.1.2 Interpretation of the rights granted in CEDAW article 6.....................................................................28 3.1.3 “Exploitation of prostitution” ...........................................................................................................................30 3.1.4 “All forms of traffic in women”.........................................................................................................................32 3.1.5 The legal effect of consent in relation to CEDAW ....................................................................................35 3.2 The Palermo Protocol..............................................................................................................................................37 3.2.1 Introduction to the Palermo Protocols’ regulation of trafficking.....................................................37 3.2.2 The legal effect of consent in relation to the Palermo Protocol ........................................................37 3.3 A side glance: Regional instruments regulating prostitution and consent......................................38 V 3.4 International regulation of the legal effect of consent to sexual acts.................................................41 3.4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................41 3.4.2 Classification of prostitution without consent ..........................................................................................42 3.4.3 Regulation of the legal effect of consent to sexual acts.........................................................................42