‘SHOULD I STAY OR SHOULD I GO?’ ZIMBABWE’S WHITE WRITING, 1980 TO 2011 by CUTHBETH TAGWIREI Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of English Studies in the Faculty of English at Stellenbosch University Supervisor: Prof. Leon de Kock December 2014 Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. December 2014 Copyright © 2014 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This thesis finds its epistemological basis in two related motives: the re-conceptualisation of white writing in Zimbabwe as a sub-category of Zimbabwean literature, and the recognition of white narratives as necessarily dialogic. The first motive follows the realization that writing by Zimbabwean whites is systematically marginalized from “mainstream” Zimbabwean literature owing to its perceived irrelevance to the postcolonial Zimbabwean nation. Through an application of Even-Zohar’s polysystem theory, this thesis argues for a recognition of white writing as a literary sub-system existing in relation to other literary and non-literary systems in Zimbabwe’s polysystem of culture. As its second motive, the thesis also calls for a critical approach to white Zimbabwean narratives built on the understanding that the study of literature can no longer be left to monologic approaches alone. Rather, white narratives should be considered as multiple and hence amenable to a multiplicity of approaches that recognize dialogue as an essential aspect of all narratives. The thesis attempts, by closely reading nine white-authored narratives in Zimbabwe, to demonstrate that white Zimbabwean literature is characterized by multiplicity, simultaneity and instability; these are tropes developed from Bakhtin’s understanding of utterances as characterized by a minimum of two voices. To consider white writing in Zimbabwe as a multiplicity is to call forth its numerous dimensions and breadth of perceptions. Simultaneity posits the need to understand opposites/conflicts as capable of existing side by side without necessarily dissolving into unity. Instability captures the several movements and destabilizations that affect writers, characters and the literary system. These three tropes enable a re-reading of white Zimbabwean narratives as complex and multi-nuanced. Such characteristics of the literary system are seen to reflect on the experiences of “whiteness” in postcolonial Zimbabwe. The white narratives selected for examination in this thesis therefore exhibit crises of belonging that reflect the dialogic nature of existence. In sum, this thesis is meant as a dialogue, culminating in the proposition that calls for a decentred and redemptive literary experience. ii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie tesis vestig sy epistemologiese basis in twee verwante motiewe: die herkonseptualisering van skryfwerk deur wit skrywers in Zimbabwe as ’n sub-kategorie van Zimbabwiese letterkunde, en die erkenning van wit narratiewe as onontkombaar dialogies in aard en wese. Die eerste motief volg die argument dat die skryfwerke van wit Zimbabwieërs stelselmatig gemarginaliseer is uit “hoofstroom” Zimbabwiese literatuur, as gevolg van dié skryfwerke se beweerde irrelevansie tot die koloniale Zimbabwiese nasie-staat. Deur Even-Zohar se polisisteem teorie toe te pas, pleit hierdie tesis vir die erkenning van letterkunde deur wit skrywers as ’n literêre sub-stelsel wat bestaan in verhouding tot ander literêre en nie-literêre sisteme in Zimbabwe se polisisteem van kultuur. As sy tweede motief, vra die tesis ook vir ’n kritiese benadering tot wit Zimbabwiese narratiewe, gebou op die verstandhouding dat die studie van letterkunde nie meer suiwer aan monologies benaderings oorgelewer behoort te word nie. Inteendeel, wit narratiewe moet as veelsydig beskou word, en dus vatbaar vir ’n verskeidenheid benaderings wat dialoog as ’n noodsaaklike aspek van alle verhale erken en verken. Deur nege wit outeurs se verhale in Zimbabwe noukeurig te lees, dui hierdie tesis aan dat wit Zimbabwiese literatuur gekenmerk word deur veelvuldigheid, gelyktydigheid en onstabiliteit; hieride is teoretiese konsepte wat ontleen is aan Bakhtin se begrip van uitsprake (“utterances”) as bestaande uit ’n minimum van twee stemme. Om wit lettere in Zimbabwe as veelvuldig te verklaar is om die talle dimensies en breedtes van persepsie in letterkundige korpus te erken. Gelyktydig postuleer die tesis die moontlikheid dat teenoorgesteldes/konflikte langs mekaar kan en móét bestaan, sonder om noodwendig in ’n eenheid te ontaard. Onstabiliteit, soos dit hier verstaan word, omvat die verskillende bewegings en ontstuimige roeringe wat skrywers, karakters en die literêre sisteem beïnvloed. Hierdie drie konsepte laat ’n herlees van wit Zimbabwiese verhale toe wat as kompleks en multi-genuanseerd bestempel kan word. Sulke kenmerke van die literêre sisteem moet in ag geneem word om die ervaring van “witheid” in post-koloniale Zimbabwe effektief uit te beeld. Die wit verhale wat gekies is vir herlees in hierdie tesis beeld dus krisisse van bestaan uit wat die dialogiese aard van die menslike bestaan omvat. Ter afsluiting is hierdie tesis bedoel as ’n dialoog wat kulmineer in ’n oproep vir gedensentraliseerde en verlossende ervarings van die letterkunde in sy geheel. iii Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Dedication I dedicate this work to my loving friend and wife Beatrice Mazviita Kahlamba and our children Tawananyasha, Tinayeshe … iv Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I am indebted to all those with whom I constantly dialogued. Without dialogue, any dialogue, this thesis would not have materialized. Like the mythical Adam, it would have remained locked in its own silences, unable to be heard or to hear the voice of another. I have learned that dialogue need not be for its own sake. This is due, in large part to the remarkably insightful dialogues with my supervisor and mentor, Professor Leon de Kock. I cherish every word, every utterance, and look forward to more of our conversations beyond this research project. I have also learnt that no word is useless. Every word merely needs the right person to encounter it and its character is transformed in multiple ways. I am grateful to Dr Nyasha Mboti, my friend and inspiration since 2002 in this regard. Thanks is also due to Maria Geustyn, graduate scholar at Stellenbosch University, for possessing a most perceptive eye for missing words and letters. Through her diligent editing, the thesis has attained an acceptable semblance of organisation and fluency. I am grateful for the conversations shared with colleagues in the Department of English and Communication at Midlands State University, Zimbabwe: in particular, Dr Javangwe for being more than just a colleague, but also a father figure; Dr Musanga for believing in the intellectual future of every one of our students and for always having a brilliant idea to share; and Dr Jakaza for the patience when I constantly asked about Stellenbosch University and sheltering me at Stellenbosch during my first visit. I have learned that the words of language are shared. No individual has a monopoly on words. I owe this to the dialogues with all my students at Midlands State University. I am particularly grateful to Reuben Williams, Shamiso Misi, Joseph Maveneke, Tawanda Nhari, Trevor Imedi, Mitchel Raposo, Tanyaradzwa Munyuki, Lenah-Lisa Bususu, Rutendo Taonezvi, Andrew Mutingwende and Nyasha Munyaradzi. They kept me reminded that other words exist besides my own and made this thesis possible in their individual ways. v Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za I am hugely indebted to Rebecca Rafunya, my loving mother and friend whose love is like no other. She never misses a moment to pray for me, my family and all those she loves. I can never repay what she has done for me. I am privileged to have other mothers besides Rebecca. Rhoda Matambo and Sarah Muzividzi are excellent mothers who deserve every child’s respect and loyalty. I implore my brothers and sisters to reciprocate the love these women have provided, whatever it takes. I happily reserve the best thoughts for my father, Cosmas Rafunya. The wise words you imparted have been put to good use. Loving thoughts also go to my siblings Simbarashe Tagwirei, Caroline Tagwirei and Cathrene Mwazha. You are a family of which I am proud to be part. Several people have been parents to my children when I was under pressure during the research and my wife was committed elsewhere. My sisters Bibiana, Beauty, Bridget, Brilliant and Bertha Matambo are stars like no other. In the three years of my study, they witnessed the birth of my two sons and raised them like their own. I reserve special thanks to Hugh Mangeya, a brother and colleague. Your forthrightness and crude honesty taught me the value of the “not-so-decent” word; that it need be freed so that it can free the speaker in turn. I am grateful to Tinashe Muzividzi for being a wonderful young brother during the last three years, especially in moments when I could have missed the companionship