An Ethnographic Study of the Ways in Which Faith is Manifested in Two Primary Schools Safia Awad A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Liverpool John Moores University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) January 2015 Contents Page Page Abstract 6 Dedication 8 Abbreviations 9 Chapter 1 – My Background: A Semi-autobiography 10 1.1. Introduction 10 1.2. My Primary Education in Saudi Arabia 12 1.3. My Primary Education in Britain 16 1.4. My Secondary Education 18 1.5. Higher Education 22 1.6. The Context of the Research 25 1.7. Defining the Research Question 29 1.8. Aims of the Research 30 1.9. Definition of Key Terms in this Research 31 1.9.1. School 31 1.9.2. Ethos 31 1.9.3. School Culture 32 1.9.4. Religion 32 1.9.5. Faith 33 1.9.6. Race 34 1.9.7. Racism 35 1.9.8. Ethnicity 35 1.10. Structure of the Thesis 36 1.11. Concluding Remarks 36 Chapter 2 – Historical Perspective of Faith Schools 38 2.1. Introduction 38 2.2. Education in Early nineteenth century 38 2.3. Challenges and Changes of Education 39 2.3.1. Social, political and economic transformation 39 2.3.2. Churches’ Involvement in State Provision 43 2.3.3. Historical Changes: The 1944 Education Act 44 2.3.4. The Education Reform Act 1988 47 2.4. Expansion of Faith School Notion 51 2.4.1. School Choice for Parents 57 2.4.2. Diversity and the Expansion of Faith Schools 59 2.4.3. Faith Schools’ Admission 61 2.5. The Coalition Government (2010) 63 2.6. Concluding Remarks 64 Chapter 3 – Culture and Education 65 3.1. Introduction 65 3.2. The Concept of Culture 65 3.3. Culture and Education 66 3.4. Multiculturalism and Education 67 3.5. Community cohesion 75 2 3.6. School Ethos 77 3.7. Islamophobia 78 3.7.1. Initiation of Islamophobia 79 3.7.2. The Media and Islamophobia 80 3.7.3. Community and Islamophobia 81 3.8. Concluding Remarks 82 Chapter 4 – Critical Race Theory and Feminist theory 84 4.1. Introduction 84 4.2. Critical Race Theory 84 4.2.1. An Understanding of CRT 85 4.2.2. CRT and Education 88 4.2.3. Central Tenets of CRT 90 4.2.3.1. Racism is Endemic 91 4.2.3.2. The critique of liberalism 91 4.2.3.3. The Intersectionality Perspective 91 4.2.3.4. Dominance 92 4.2.3.5. Significance of Experiential Knowledge 93 4.2.4 The concept of ‘Othered’ 94 4.3. Feminist Theory 94 4.4. On Being a Muslim Researcher in Hijab 100 4.5. Concluding Remarks 101 Chapter 5 – Ethnography 102 5.1. Introduction 102 5.2. Introducing the Research Paradigms 102 5.2.1. The Interpretive Paradigm 104 5.2.2. Adopting the Qualitative Approach 107 5.3. On the Concept of Reflexivity 109 5.3.1. Reflexivity and Ethnographic Research 110 5.4. Understanding Ethnography 112 5.4.1. Significance of an Ethnographic method 113 5.5. The Initial Pilot 117 5.5.1. Challenges and Outcome of the Initial Pilot 119 5.6. The Two Schools 122 5.6.1. St. Liam’s Church of England Primary School 123 5.6.2. Beale Community Primary School 124 5.7. Techniques for Generating Data 124 5.7.1. Participant Observations 125 5.7.2. Interviews 127 5.7.2.1. Construction of the Interview 127 5.7.2.2. Sampling procedure (Participants) 129 5.7.3. Focus groups 130 5.7.4. Informal Conversations 130 5.7.5. Documentary data 131 5.8. Trustworthiness of Research Instruments 132 5.9. Research Field 134 5.9.1. Access to Schools 135 5.9.2. Making Observations 135 5.9.3. Participants’ permission 136 5.10. Refining Interview Questions 137 5.11. Data-Storing Methods 139 3 5.12. Ethical Considerations 140 5.13. Data Analysis 148 5.14. Concluding Remarks 151 Chapter 6 – School Policy and Values: Rhetoric or Reality? 152 6.1. Introduction 152 6.2. Fostering Religious Commitment 153 6.2.1. Christian Festivals 154 6.2.2. Other Festivals 161 6.3. School Space and Boundaries 171 6.3.1. Halal Kitchen 172 6.3.2. Assemblies 174 6.3.3. Displays 177 6.3.4. Prayer Room 179 6.4. Discipline and Respect 183 6.5. School Ethos 190 6.6. Concluding remarks 195 Chapter 7 - Staff and Children: Integration into the School 197 7.1. Introduction 197 7.2. Recognising Cultural Diversity 198 7.2.1. Dress Code 199 7.2.2. Etiquettes in Cultures 202 7.2.3. Being Inconsiderate 204 7.3. School Religious Visits 211 7.3.1. Places of Worship 212 7.3.2. Hindered Opportunities 217 7.4. Forms of Dominance 219 7.4.1. Dominance in Lessons 220 7.4.2. Staff Dominance 225 7.5. Concluding Remarks 231 Chapter 8 – Conclusion and Recommendations 233 8.1. Introduction 233 8.2. Summary of the Research and the Key Findings 233 8.3. Contribution to Knowledge 239 8.4. Recommendations 240 8.4.1. Awareness of Difference 240 8.4.2. Creating Mutual Respect and Understanding 241 8.4.3. Adopting Impartial Policies and Values 241 8.4.4. Training Courses and Workshops 242 8.4.5. Equality and Integration 243 8.4.6. Promoting a Shared Sense of Values 244 8.5. Challenges and Limitations 245 8.6. Further Research 246 8.7. Retrospective Reflections 247 8.8. Concluding Remarks 251 Chapter 9 – Reference List 253 Chapter 10 – Appendices 292 Appendix 1 - Original aims of the initial pilot study 292 4 Appendix 2 - Information about participants from St. Michael RC School 293 Appendix 3 - Interpretation of the data of the pilot study 295 Appendix 4 - Ethnography Key 301 Appendix 5 - Headteacher interview – St. Liam’s School 302 Appendix 6 - Headteacher interview – Beale School 303 Appendix 7 - Teachers interview – St. Liam’s School 304 Appendix 8 - Teachers interview – Beale School 305 Appendix 9 - School community members interview – St. Liam’s School 306 Appendix 10 - School community members interview – Beale School 307 Appendix 11 - Children interview – St. Liam’s School 308 Appendix 12 - Children interview – Beale School 309 Appendix 13 - Participant’s information sheet and consent form – school 310 members Appendix 14 - Participant’s information sheet and consent form – Parents 312 Appendix 15 - Participant’s information sheet and consent form – Children 314 Appendix 16 - Participant’s information sheet and consent form – School 316 headteacher 5 Abstract Fostering religious commitment in schools and considering children’s cultural diversity arguably enhances pupils’ tolerance and integration, which may have the potential to reduce racism and discrimination. Faith schools are religiously and culturally diverse institutions and typically appreciated for their core values, good behaviour and academic standards. However, their impact on school culture and ethos is under explored. Although, the role of faith has gained attention both in policy and practice, relatively little is known about its impact in the context of primary education. As such, this research explores the complex influence of faith on school culture and ethos. In addition, critical analysis is undertaken to investigate the impact of faith on pupils’ behaviour and understanding in school. The main research aims are to: explore the multiple ways in which faith is manifested in two schools, determine the influence of faith on school culture and ethos, and establish the impact of faith on pupils’ behaviours and understanding in school. This research takes an ethnographic approach to explore how faith is manifested in two primary schools in the North West of England. The ethnography enabled a deeper immersion in to the school culture as data were generated through observations, interviews, focus groups and documentary analysis in two schools: A denomination school, Church of England, and a community school with an Islamic ethos. The research was conducted in the North West of England which has many diverse faith-based schools. Critical Race and Feminist Theories were used as lenses of analysis to examine faith in school. Critical Race Theory is a framework employed to examine the role of race and power in education. This research provides rich ethnographic description and analysis of faith as understood, practiced and experienced in the two schools. The findings reveal two major themes, first, a mismatch between school policy/values and its practice. Second, a lack of integration of staff and children into the school. Despite schools’ efforts to embrace diversity and encourage integration, schools policies were found to be empty rhetoric with regards to fostering religious commitment and cultural diversity. Exploring the issue of recognising cultural diversity within schools, findings indicated that both schools did not 6 acknowledge or teach other cultural traditions, therefore, impacting on issues of integration. Poor behaviour, bullying and racism amongst children were major issues at both schools. Data analysis suggests the source of misbehaviour was due to the lack of emphasis placed on teaching about different religions, insufficient knowledge of cultural traditions and lack of visits to places of worship. This research concludes that there is a need for schools to develop awareness of religions and cultural diversity; thereby, encouraging integration, community cohesion and respect for similarities and differences. 7 Dedication This dissertation is lovingly dedicated to my two children: Muna and Mohammed 8 Abbreviations Acronym Signifies BHA British Humanist Association CofE Church of England CRT Critical Race Theory DCSF Department for Children, Schools and Families DfEE Department for Education and Employment DfES Department for Education and Skills EAL English as an Additional Language EFL English as a First Language GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education HMI Her Majesty’s Inspector (Education) HMSO Her Majesty’s Stationery Office KS Key Stage LA Local Authority LEA Local Education Authority LSA Learning Support Assistant NC National Curriculum OfSTED Office for Standards in Education PE Physical Education PhD Doctor of Philosophy QCA Qualifications and Curriculum Authority RC Roman Catholic RE Religious Education SATs Statutory Assessment Tests SEN Special Educational Needs TA Teacher Assistant TES Times Educational Supplement US United States 9 Chapter 1 My Background: A Semi-autobiography 1.1.