The 'Woman Question' in the Aftermath of the Great Syrian Revolt: A Transnational Dialogue from the Arab-Argentine Immigrant Press María del Mar Logroño Narbona PhD Candidate, History University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Beyond the geographical borders of the Middle East, dis- Although still in its early stages, the literature on Syrian courses and debates about Middle Eastern women and Lebanese immigrants in Argentina is a growing field played an important role in the Arabic immigrant press in with groundbreaking works from scholars such as Ignacio the Mahjar (diaspora). This article explores the particular Klich, Michael Humphrey, Gladys Jozami, Christina case of al-Istiklaal1 in the final moments and aftermath Civantos, and Margot Scheffold, among others. Their of the Great Syrian Revolt, “the largest, longest, and studies explore the intersections between identity, ethnic- most destructive of the Arab Middle Eastern revolts” ity, and nationality in the context of a heterogeneous (Provence, 2005, p. 12). From its first issue in June 1926 immigrant community that dates back from the last until late 1929, this Arab-Argentine newspaper systemat- decade of the nineteenth century. As is the case with ically attacked the French Mandate and advocated for an Middle Eastern studies literature, however, women have independent Syria and Lebanon, which should be part of been a neglected subject in most of these works a larger pan-Arab political entity. Although al-Istiklaal was (Fleischmann, 1999, p. 93). This article builds on previous a political publication produced by men and intended for work in the field and sheds light on how general debates a male audience,2 it nonetheless introduced women as an in Syria and Lebanon on the 'Woman Question'3 in the iconographic and discursive element. Al-Istiklaal incorpo- 1920s were adopted and, in some cases, adapted to rated in its issues visual images of female activists and accommodate the special characteristics of al-Istiklaal as prominent Middle Eastern and European women along a pan-Arab newspaper published in Argentina. The with editorial articles on debates about the veil and edu- 'Woman Question', thus, becomes an analytical tool to cation that, to some extent, reproduced those taking explore the tensions that originated in the intersection place in Syria and Lebanon. What were the reasons that between national identity and transnational nationalism led a pan-Arab political publication in Buenos Aires to as represented in al-Istiklaal. include women? What was the relationship with the pol- itics expressed in the publication? How did al-Istiklaal The Great Revolt: the Courage of Exceptional reproduce or transform general debates on women and Women in Exceptional Times gender in the late 1920s in the Middle East? Al-Istiklaal came into being in June 1926 as a political and Volume XXIV, Nos. 116-117, Winter/Spring 2007 5 File File File intellectual response to the upheaval caused by the Great Despite the initial fervor that the courage of these Following the general outrage after France's harsh Shahbandar faction. On the contrary, al-Istiklaal mostly Syrian Revolt. The revolt was an anti-colonial nationalist women produced in male discourses about women in repression of armed Druze rebels, Arslan published a portrayed opposition to the French Mandate as a united movement that by 1927 had been brutally repressed by Syria and Lebanon, Elizabeth Thompson concludes that short pamphlet in Spanish about the Great Syrian Revolt anti-colonial movement. However, his support of the the French authorities (Thompson, 2000, p. 46). But the these discourses were exceptional and did not add sup- entitled La revolución siria contra el mandato francés (The Arslan-Istiqlali faction, although not explicit, was clear in revolt also had a component of mass mobilization; as port to the feminist movement at the end of the armed Syrian Revolt against the French Mandate). In this work, the subtext of his writings and editorial options. This expressed by Michael Provence, “[f]or more than two conflict. Al-Istiklaal adopted the regressive attitude of Arslan denounced the French Mandate as a disguised col- became evident in the series of articles reproduced in al- years a ragtag collection of farmers, urban tradesmen Syrian and Lebanese men. Although this is not the place onization (colonización disfrazada) (Arslan, 1925, p. 42). Istiklaal authored by Shakib Arslan that were reprinted and workers, and former junior officers of the Ottoman to narrate in detail the intricate history of 'nationality sta- Like other critiques of the French Mandate at the time, from 1927 onwards. The necessary question that arises and Arab armies managed to challenge, and often tus' among Syrian and Lebanese emigrants in the Mahjar, Arslan printed photographs and graphically described the from this situation is how to interpret Arslan's editorial defeat, the colonial army of one of the most powerful it is important to mention that citizenship issues were not ruthless bombardments of Damascus and its population strategy of not offering explicit political support for the countries in the world.” As historian Elizabeth Thompson compromised as a result of these vibrant narratives about at the hands of the French military (Arslan, 1925, p. 86). Arslan-Istiqlali faction. Should we consider that Arslan has shown, gender and women were also integral parts women's heroic collaborations. After the revolt, and Arslan was not the only Syrian-Lebanese emigrant to rad- was not aware of the internal politics of the Syrian- of the mass mobilization of this revolt. While gender was despite the concern over citizenship issues among Syrian icalize his position against the French Mandate in Syria Palestine Congress? Due to his extensive political experi- “both a discursive and physical battlefield” among Syrian and Lebanese immigrants, al-Istiklaal did not raise the and Lebanon during the Great Revolt. As greater research ence, his contacts, and the cosmopolitan outlook of the nationalists and French authorities, women “participated question of citizenship rights so that they could also be shows, many Syrians and Lebanese in the Americas Arslan-Istiqlali movement, it would seem appropriate to in the physical and rhetorical combat” (Thompson, 2000, granted to women. In this way, al-Istiklaal perpetuated actively protested the French military presence in Syria look in a different direction for the answer. The publica- pp. 46-47). Although published in Argentina, al-Istiklaal the general male consensus that women's heroism dur- through letters to French consulates and formal com- tion of his short anti-French pamphlet suggests that Emir reflected both the 'physical and rhetorical' combat of ing the revolt was nothing but “women's duty toward plaints to the League of Nations.7 Arslan presented himself to the Argentine community as women in the battlefield on three occasions. the community to protect it in times of need” a member of a larger unified anti-French movement. It (Thompson, 2000, p. 124). This radicalization of politics among the Syrian and should also be pointed out that in it he had characterized On July 15, 1926, al-Istiklaal reproduced the letter that a Lebanese in the Mahjar paralleled the changes brought the division of Lebanon and Syria as a 'sainete' (a Druze woman had sent in April to the wife of a French Pan-Arabism, Islam, and Modernity in an Argentine about by the Revolt within the Syrian national movement. grotesque situation or comic sketch). How would fac- Captain after he had perished in a battle in Sweida. After Context According to historian Philip Khoury, the revolt sharply tionalism among the Syrian anti-French movement have giving her condolences to the widow, the anonymous Al-Istiklaal, however, did not merely mimic its Syrian and divided the members of the Syrian-Palestine Congress, been regarded by Argentine society whose knowledge of Druze woman harshly criticized the brutality of French Lebanese counterparts. In its treatment of women and the opposition movement in exile. the Middle East was limited to some military attacks in Sweida and explained why the Syrians gender, the political biweekly reflected the tensions of a Divisions between the two main fac- orientalist notions?8 Could Emir were fiercely fighting against the French. In addition to newspaper published in Argentina with a pan-Arab lean- tions, the Arslan-Istiqlali and the Arslan as a pan-Arab leader in this letter, and still during the last months of the fighting, ing. This tension was explicit in two main instances: the Shahbandar-Lutfallah, had already ... theater and cinema Argentina afford to share the internal al-Istiklaal once more reproduced an article, this time discourses about the veil and the choice of what can be emerged before the Revolt as both divisions in the anti-colonial move- from the Daily Chicago News, in which a French corre- called exemplary women. In order to understand fully the factions held opposed political had been the battle- ment? spondent praised the courage of Druze women in the nature of this tension, we need first to contextualize al- visions. However, their differences ground of protest in battlefield. The article included the opinions of French Istiklaal in its double sociopolitical backdrop as a news- grew with the adoption of radically Arslan's editorial strategy is impor- military officers who expressed their surprise at the paper published in Argentina that related to Middle different approaches to the negotia- the most conservative tant in our analysis for one main rea- courage of Druze women joining Druze men in their fight Eastern politics. tion of the conflict (Khoury, 1987, p. religious sectors of son: it evinces his awareness of the against the French troops. Seven of those women died in 225). As the name of the editor and position of his own writings as a fierce combat. However, there was no mention of any Shakib Arslan and the Istiqlali Faction of the Syrian- the title of the publication may Syrian and Lebanese Middle Easterner writing about the specific female heroes, from which we should conclude Palestine Congress already indicate, Emir Amin Arslan societies in Middle East in Argentina.