ARTICLE https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20008-3 OPEN Weak tides during Cryogenian glaciations ✉ J. A. Mattias Green 1 , Hannah S. Davies2,3, Joao C. Duarte 2,3,4, Jessica R. Creveling5 & Christopher Scotese6 The severe “Snowball Earth” glaciations proposed to have existed during the Cryogenian period (720 to 635 million years ago) coincided with the breakup of one supercontinent and assembly of another. Whereas the presence of extensive continental ice sheets predicts a tidally energetic Snowball ocean due to the reduced ocean depth, the supercontinent 1234567890():,; palaeogeography predicts weak tides because the surrounding ocean is too large to host tidal resonances. Here we show, using an established numerical global tidal model and paleo- geographic reconstructions, that the Cryogenian ocean hosted diminished tidal amplitudes and associated energy dissipation rates, reaching 10–50% of today’s rates, during the Snowball glaciations. We argue that the near-absence of Cryogenian tidal processes may have been one contributor to the prolonged glaciations if these were near-global. These results also constrain lunar distance and orbital evolution throughout the Cryogenian, and highlight that simulations of past oceans should include explicit tidally driven mixing processes. 1 School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University, Menai Bridge, UK. 2 Instituto Dom Luiz (IDL), Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal. 3 Departamento de Geologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal. 4 School of Earth, Atmosphere and Environment, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia. 5 College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA. 6 Earth and ✉ Planetary Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA. email: [email protected] NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:6227 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20008-3 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 1 ARTICLE NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20008-3 t has been suggested that the Earth experienced near-global Tides are known to fluctuate on geological time scales16,17 due severe glaciations during the Cryogenian period (720–635 to changes in the basin geometries induced by the motion of the I “ ’ 18,19 fi Ma), events which earned the nickname Snowball Earth s tectonic plates . The main mechanism for ampli ca- Earth”1,2. The earliest Cryogenian glaciation proposed, the tion of the tides is tidal resonance, which occurs when the size of Sturtian from 717–660 Ma1–3, and the younger Marinoan a basin is equal to half a wave length of the tidal wave20,21. glaciation, from 650–635 Ma1,3, had continental ice advance Because of movements of the tectonic plates, we can therefore down to very low latitudes4, possibly leaving an open equa- expect the tides to change on scales of millions of years. Also, torial ocean (the latter known as a “Slushball Earth”5). A because the wavelength is set by the tidal period (here taken to be Snowball state is climatologically stable, with the predicted 10.98 h throughout the period under investigation22,23—see our duration of long-lived glaciation commensurate with the time methods for more details) and the speed of the wave, which in for volcanic outgassing of greenhouse gases to reach a turn is set by the water depth, large-scale variations in depth due threshold for deglaciation1,6–8, leading to abrupt warming and to the appearance of ice can also move a basin towards, or away hothouse conditions after the glaciations7,9.Herewepropose from, resonance on scales shorter than those of tectonic motions. that a second factor, ocean tides, influenced the duration of Here, we aim to quantify Cryogenian tidal energetics by Cryogenian Snowball glaciations. Coupled ice flow–ocean cir- simulating the evolution of the global tides using 20 recent paleo- culation models10,11 suggest that there was only a single vig- geographic reconstructions covering 750–500 Ma18 in a numer- orous meridional overturning circulation cell, and hence ical tidal model17 (see Methods for details and sensitivity simu- stratification, near the equator in the Snowball ocean. The rest lations). We discuss how Cryogenian tidal amplitude and of the ocean was most likely vertically mixed or only very dissipation was affected by and could have contributed to the weakly stratified because of strong convective overturns from onset and termination of Snowball glaciation, and wider impli- geothermal heating11,12. If tidal dissipation, i.e., the loss of tidal cations of the tidal results. The investigation covers the late energy due to boundary friction and tidal conversion (the Neoproterozoic, including the Cryogenian, and spans 750–600 generation of internal tidal waves), was then added to the Ma. We model a Sturtian and Marinoan glaciation duration from background flow, the stratification could break down further13. 715–660 Ma and 650–635 Ma, respectively. This scenario predicts negligible tidal conversion (i.e., the generation of an internal tide), and tidal dissipation would be Results limited to the frictional boundary layer near the sea floor and Tidal amplitudes. The numerical simulations predict global underneath the ice. It has been suggested that tides in the mean M2 tidal amplitudes of ~0.2 m prior to the onset of the vicinity of the Laurentide ice sheet during the last deglaciation Sturtian glaciation (Figs. 1 and 2a, and Supplementary Fig. 1; note probably contributed to its rapid collapse14.Themeltratein that the tidal range is twice the amplitude). At 715 Ma, model cavities under the ice shelf in present day Antarctica is largely glacial tidal amplitudes rapidly increase to 0.44 m, higher than controlled by tidally driven mixing, because mixing stirs the present-day tidal amplitudes (Fig. 2), due to sea-level fall below cold and fresh meltwater under the ice down into the water the continental shelf. This allows a tidal resonance to develop, column, thus allowing saltier and warmer water to be brought much like the enhanced resonance during the Last Glacial into contact with the ice15. Breaking down the saline stratifi- Maximum21,24. The tidal amplitude in the simulations then cation in the ice-ocean boundary layer is a key process that will decreases during the next 25 Ma due to a tectonic configuration happen even if the rest of the ocean is only weakly stratified. that was unable to host a large tide because the basins were too Thus, weak tides would reduce under-ice mixing rates, which large to be near resonance for the semidiurnal tide21,25–27. The could prolong the duration of a Snowball glaciation, with far- model suggests that at 680 Ma, the tide became more energetic reaching consequences for the Earth system. again because the tectonic emergence of land over the South Pole 750 Ma 715 Ma 680 Ma 660 Ma 655 Ma 650 Ma 635 Ma 630 Ma 600 Ma 0 0.5 1 1.5 M2 amplitude [m] Fig. 1 Simulated M2 tidal amplitudes in metres for the time slices representing 750, 715, 680, 660, 655, 650, 635, 630 and 600 Ma (see labels in the top left hand corner of each panel; note that all global maps are plotted on a Mollweide projection). Note that the colour scale saturates at 1.5 m, in a grey-green colour, for clarity. The grey arrow at 630 Ma point to the coastline where the Elatina formation31 is now located. The formation gives a tidal proxy showing a range consistent with the one presented from the model. 2 NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | (2020) 11:6227 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20008-3 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20008-3 ARTICLE a 0.4 0.3 amplitude (m) 2 0.2 0.1 Sturtain Marinoan Global M 0 750 700 650 600 Interglacial Glacial Marinoan Glacial & IT Interglacial no IT Slush 2.5 b Present Day 2 1.5 1 0.5 Global dissipation (TW) 0 750 700 650 600 Time (Ma) Fig. 2 The evolution of globally averaged tidal parameters during the Cryogenian. Globally averaged M2 amplitudes (a) and integrated dissipation rates (b) throughout the period under consideration. The black solid line is the result from the set of simulations with conversion and no sea level change during interglacial periods (red dots), and a 500 m lowstand, no conversion, and increased bed friction during the glacial periods (blue dots). The x-symbols mark sensitivity simulations at the onset and end of glacial periods, in which non-glacial conditions were used, and the plus signs (+) mark simulations during interglacial periods without tidal conversion. The blue dashed line with circle markers shows the results for the Slushball with an ice-free band within 10o from the equator. The horizontal black dotted lines mark present day values and the blue shaded areas mark the spans of the two glaciations. and a convergence of the main continental landmasses in the driven processes. A key feature, however, is the very sharp rise in southern hemisphere changed the geometry of the large super- the dissipation rates at the end of the Marinoan; over 5 Myr the ocean basin to a size that was closer to that required for tidal tidal dissipation rate increases from 0.2 to 1.4 TW. Deglacial ice resonance. Another decrease in tidal amplitude would have melt thus had important effects on the tides as ocean circulation occurred through ~660 Ma because the continental configuration and tidally driven mixing recovered. As the reconstructed con- would only have allowed for small tidal amplitudes. The tide at tinental configuration changed minimally between 635 and 630 655 Ma, however, is slightly elevated in the model because the Ma, the change in tidal amplitude and dissipation in the model continental configuration allowed for a large tide between the arises from the parametrization of the ice sheets (i.e., the lowstand glaciations.