Contesting Land and Identity: the case of Women Cultivators and Fulani Cattle Herders in Wum, Northwest Region of Cameroon A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts (Research) in African Studies By Peter, Tse Angwafo Supervisors: Prof. dr. Mirjam de Bruijn Dr Harry Wels University of Leiden, The Netherlands August, 2014 Contents Dedication vi Acknowledgement vii Acronyms ix Abstract xi CHAPTER ONE: FACING MENCHUM VALLEY AND DANCING THE PILOT 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Problem Statement 2 1.3 Theoretical Approaches 5 1.3.1 Towards a Definition of Conflict 5 1.3.2 Historical and Theoretical Perspectives 6 1.3.3 Scarcity or Abundance of Natural Resources? 8 1.3.4 Conflicts Resulting from the Politics of Belonging and Identity 10 CHAPTER TWO: THE GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOGRAPHIC CONTEXT OF WUM CENTRAL SUB-DIVISION 13 2.1 Introduction 13 2.1.1 Situating the Site of the Research 13 2.2 The Peopling of Wum Central Sub-division 16 2.2.1 The Aghem Federation 17 2.2.2 Aghem as ‘First Comers’ 18 2.2.3 Aghem Social and Political Organisation 19 2.3 The Chiefdom of Bu 19 ii 2.4 Matrilineal Succession as the Foundation of the Aghem and Bu Chiefdoms 21 2.5 The Fulani Cattle Herdsmen 23 2.6 Methodology of Data Collection 24 CHAPTER THREE: CHANGING LAND TENURE AND SHIFTING PATTERNS OF LAND USE IN WUM CENTRAL 27 3.1 Introduction 27 3.2 Overview of Customary Land Tenure and the Traditional Agricultural Economy 28 3.3 The Introduction of Colonial Land Laws and Policies 32 3.3.1 Dividing the People, Sharing the Land: Colonial Land Expropriation Policy 33 3.4 The Introduction of Cash Economy 37 3.4.1 The Introduction of Rice Cultivation in Bu 38 CHAPTER FOUR: ‘WE ARE STRANGERS IN OUR LAND AND OUR CHIEFS NOW BELONG TO THE FULANI ’: THE PARADOXES OF CHANGING PATRON/CLIENT RELATIONSHIPS IN LAND DEALS 43 4.1 Introduction 43 4.2 Understanding Patron-Client Relationships 45 4.2.1 People as the Source of Authority of the Chief 47 4.2.2 The Changing Context of Authority of Chiefs: From Wealth in People to Wealth in Land 50 4.2.3 Being or Becoming a Patron or a Client 51 4.3 Attribution of Land to Strangers and the Different forms of Social Exchanges 53 4.4 The Nexus between Land and Patronage as Instruments of Political Mobilisation 56 iii 4.4.1 The September 30th 2013 Municipal and Parliamentary Elections 56 4.4.2 Election Campaigns: The Politics of Gift-giving and Promises 58 4.5 Mistrust and Disillusionment 62 4.6 Why do Patron-Client Relationships Persist? 65 CHAPTER FIVE: LAND GOVERNANCE, WOMEN, AND THE POLITICS OF DISPOSSESSION 67 5.1 Introduction 67 5.2 Towards the 1974 Land Ordinances 68 5.2.1 The Basic Tenets the 1974 Land Ordinances 71 5.3 Traditional Rulers facing the State 75 5.4 Land Acquisition for ‘Public Purposes’ and the Politics of Dispossession 78 5.5 The 1974 Law Ordinances: Women and Vulnerable Groups as Losers 84 5.6 Closing the Gaps: Towards a new Land Reform? 85 CHAPTER SIX: LAND, CATTLE AND WEALTH: THE SORE OF FULANI IN WUM CENTRAL SUB-DIVISION 89 6.1 Introduction 89 6.2 The Introduction of Extensive Cattle Herding Methods 93 6.3 The Genesis of the ‘Unholy Alliance’ 99 6.4 Farmer/Herder Relations 104 6.5 MBOSCUDA and Citizenship Rights: The Fulani Response 106 6.6 The 1990 Liberty Laws and Fulani right to Citizenship 109 iv CHAPTER SEVEN: ‘WHEN TWO ELEPHANTS FIGHT THE GRASS SUFFERS’: THE POLITICS OF LAND CONFLICTS AND CONTESTING IDENTITIES. 113 7.1 Introduction 113 7.2 Women Protests and Confrontations with Fulani Herders 114 7.3 Why Women? 115 7.4 Women’s Resistance to the Infringement of their Sphere 117 7.5 Chiefs Facing the Women 119 7.6 A Panorama of Conflicts over Crop damages 121 7.7 Encroachments into Farmlands/grazing Fields 124 7.8 Ritual and Burial Sites as Strategy for Land Claims 126 7.9 The First Comer/Late Comer Thesis 128 7.10 Why are these Conflicts Persistent? 130 CHAPTER EIGHT: ‘LAND IS NOW MONEY’: UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF DOMESTIC ELITES IN LAND DEALS 135 8.1 Introduction: 135 8.2 Understanding the Phenomenon of Land Grabbing 135 8.3 The Drivers Behind Land Grab 136 8.4 The State and Domestic Elites as Vectors for Land Commercialisation 139 8.5 Elites and the ‘Sons and Daughters of the Soil’ Syndrome 142 8.6 Why Sell the Land? 143 8.7 The ‘Silent Group’ and the Fulanisation of the Farmer-grazer Conflicts 144 v CHAPTER NINE: CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS 151 BIBLIOGRAPHY 155 Glossary 182 vi Dedication To my Mother: Manyie-Ntoh Esther M.Angwafo III vii Acknowledgement This work could not have been accomplished without the support and encouragements from so many people. I owe a debt of gratitude to all those who assisted towards the realisation of this project in different ways. I want to particularly thank and appreciate Prof dr Mirjam, De Bruijn and Dr Harry Wels for accepting to work with me as Supervisor and Co-supervisor respectively. Their insightful comments and suggestions during the entire process of writing this thesis cannot be overemphasized. Also, I can not forget the collaboration that I enjoyed working with Professor dr Robert Ross and other members of staff. My special gratitude goes to the University of Leiden and the African Studies Centre who offered me the Leiden University Excellence Scholarship (LEXS) GOLD and Rabo Bank grant that enabled me to pursue this program. I also appreciate the financial assistance from the Volkswagen Small Grant of the University of Cologne –Germany which facilitated my movements for the six months of field work. I want to thank Prof Nyamnjoh Francis of the University of Cape Town- South Africa for the enormous efforts that he made for me to achieve this academic endeavour. There is no other way to say it but to thank you sincerely. Most of my gratitude goes to Mrs Chibikom Jacqueline for the invaluable comments and suggestions that she made on the manuscript which enhanced and improved the quality of the final project.Particular appreciation also goes to my classmates especially Michael Weldeghiorhis Tedla with whom we had several discussion sessions and exchanges on our work at every stage of the research. I also wish to extend my sincere gratitude to my mates, Julia Fouldriane, Andreas Admasie, Eefje Gilbert with whom I shared good moments and collaboration during the entire study period. It was a nice and friendly team that I will forever miss. Special thanks also go to Dr Azeb Amha- the Coordinator of the African Studies program who in most cases served as a counselor and assisted me in several ways during my study period at Leiden. I acknowledge the collaboration and assistance that I received from Mr Forgwe Azarh Primus- the Archivist of the National Archives Buea (NAB) and Mrs Kpuyuf Nee Mary Benita Lamnyuy-the viii Librarian of the Buea Archive. I also want to register my profound gratitude to the Regional Delegate of Arts and Culture for the Northwest Region of Cameroon, Mrs Lukong Ernestine for allowing me use the services and resources of the Regional Archive in Bamenda (RAB). It is not possible to mention everybody here but I thank Fon Mbambi III of Aghem, the Regent of Bu and my informants.Your support meant so much during the ardous task of putting this work together. I am also indebted to Dr Nkwi of the Univeristy of Buea and Langaa Research and Publishing Group for providing me with comfortable accommodation in Mankon and Buea during my field work in Cameroon. Dr Kah Henry of Buea will be remembered for creating the necessary contacts for me in the field. Special thanks to my childhood friend, Augustine, K.Tanikwu who assisted me in so many ways to settle down in the Netherlands. It would be unjust if I do not recognise and appreciate the support that I got from Dr Beckley K. Nfor and wife Matilda Tani Nfor who provided shelter for me from September to November after my housing contract expired in August. I will not forget their two years old baby Angelica who fondly called me ‘Auko’ (Uncle) and became my companion and play mate at all times. Special thanks also to George Nfor and Juliette with whom I shared good moments and exchanged ideas not only about academics but about life in general. Finally, I wish to thank members of my family and especially my father-Fo Angwafo III S.A.N who have always stood by me at all times. ix Acronyms ACUDA Aku Cultural and Development Association BMRS Bu/Mbengkas Rice Co-operative Society CDC Cameroon Development Corporation CPDM Cameroon Peoples’ Democratic Movement DO District Officer ECOSOC Economic and Social Council ELECAM Elections Cameroon ILO International Labour Organisation IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature GDP Gross Domestic Product MBOSCUDA Mbororo Social and Cultural Development Association NAB National Archives Buea NES National Engagement Strategy NHRLC National Human Rights and Liberties Commission NTFPs Non Timber Forest Products NWO/WOTRO Science for Global World Development Progammes PNDP National Community Development Driven Plan RAB Regional Archives Bamenda SDF Social Democratic Front SODELCO Société de Développement d’Élevage et du Commerce WADA Wum Area Development Authority x List of Tables and Figures Figure 1 Map of Cameroon within the Central African Sub region ............................................. 14 Figure 2: Map showing (Aghem and Bu) Sites for Research ......................................................