Middlesex University Research Repository An open access repository of Middlesex University research http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk Wall, Michael (2014) Understanding the values of Christian organisations: a case study of across (1972-2005) using the organisational culture theory of Edgar Schein. PhD thesis, Middlesex University / London School of Theology. [Thesis] Final accepted version (with author’s formatting) This version is available at: https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/15773/ Copyright: Middlesex University Research Repository makes the University’s research available electronically. Copyright and moral rights to this work are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners unless otherwise stated. The work is supplied on the understanding that any use for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. A copy may be downloaded for personal, non-commercial, research or study without prior permission and without charge. 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See also repository copyright: re-use policy: http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/policies.html#copy Understanding the Values of Christian Organisations: A Case Study of Across (1972-2005) using the Organisational Culture Theory of Edgar Schein A Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Michael Wall Middlesex University Supervised at London School of Theology October 2014 Abstract Student: Michael Wall Title: Understanding the Values of Christian Organisations: A Case Study of Across (1972-2005) using the Organisational Culture Theory of Edgar Schein Degree: Doctor of Philosophy University: Middlesex University/London School of Theology Year of Submission: 2014 This thesis addresses the research question: Is Schein’s theory useful for understanding the values of Christian organisations? The research method used is a case study of ‘Across’. Across is a Christian mission organisation working in South Sudan, which was founded in 1972 after the Addis Ababa Agreement brought to an end the First Sudanese Civil War (1955-1972). Schein’s theory of organisational culture states that ‘the essence of a group's culture is its pattern of shared, basic taken-for-granted assumptions’. In this thesis these ‘basic assumptions’ are referred to by using the term organisational values. According to Schein organisational values manifest themselves at the level of ‘observable artifacts’ and ‘shared espoused values’. Schein then sees that the task of the researcher is to ‘decipher’ these two elements so as to identify the actual, underlying organisational values. After reflecting theologically on the appropriateness of using such a theory in a Christian context the research method then leads to a two stage process being followed. Firstly, to analyse the organisational values of Across from the founding of Across in 1972 until 2005, when the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) came to an end. The steps in this first stage of the process are to identify the actual organisational values of Across, to look at the factors that caused these values to emerge in Across, and then to track how significant an influence these organisational values were on the organisational behaviour of Across. The Across organisational values identified and selected for study can be summarised in the terms: partnering; integrating (integral mission); focusing on ‘the South’, and identifying with the Sudanese. The second stage in the process is to evaluate how useful Schein’s theory has been in understanding Across, and to assess whether Schein’s theory would therefore be useful in understanding other Christian organisations. The conclusion of this research is that Schein’s theory of organisational culture is useful in understanding the values of Christian organisations, and that this understanding can enable the leaders of Christian organisations to lead more effectively. Table of Contents 1 Introduction & Thesis Statement 1 SECTION 1 10-107 Theoretical Field with Theological Reflection & Methodology 2 Organisational Culture Theory 11 3 Schein’s Theory of Organisational Culture 35 4 Theological Reflection 55 5 Methodology 93 SECTION 2 108-257 Case Study of the Organisational Values of Across (with Introductions to Conceptual Frameworks) 6 Sudan Context and Summary of Across (1972-2005) 109 7 Partnering (Partnership) 142 8 Integrating (Integral Mission) 176 9 Focusing on ‘the South’ (Vision & Strategy) 210 10 Identifying with the Sudanese (Identification) 236 SECTION 3 258-294 Evaluation of Usefulness 11 Usefulness of Schein’s Theory in a Christian Context 259 12 Summary & Conclusion 286 Appendix: Across Timeline 295 Bibliography 296-323 Introduction 1 1. Introduction The realm being explored in this thesis can be described as ‘the spirit of an organisation’.1 In particular the focus is on organisational values, because ‘although definitions of what are the key elements of the spiritual in organizations vary there is general consensus that values are a major element’.2 The title of this thesis is Understanding the Values of Christian Organisations: A Case Study of Across (1972- 2005) using the Organisational Culture Theory of Edgar Schein.3 The thesis addresses the research question: Is Schein’s theory useful for understanding the values of Christian organisations?4 The reason why this study is needed is because a key role of any leader of an organisation is to be the guardian and guide for that organisation’s values, and according to Schein this function is ‘the essence of leadership’.5 In fact when seen in this way ‘leadership and culture are two sides of the same coin’,6 so in order to fulfil his or her role effectively the leader needs to understand what the values are within their organisation, where they come from, how they influence organisational behaviour, and if necessary, how to change them. Schein’s theory can be used to do this. As guardians and guides of values, leaders of Christian organisations have this same need to understand the values in their organisations, but because Christian organisations are arguably distinct from other organisations, the question that needs to be answered here is whether Schein’s theory is also useful in understanding the values of a Christian organisation. If the theory is found to be useful in understanding the 1 P. Drucker, The Practice of Management (Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann, 1995) 142 2 A. Fowler & C. Malunga, NGO Management - the Earthscan Companion (London: Earthscan, 2010) 260 3 Edgar Schein (born 1928) is an eminent social psychologist and pioneer researcher in the field of organisational culture whose seminal book Organizational Culture and Leadership, first published in 1985, is now in its fourth edition (2010). He has also published a popular version, The Corporate Culture Survival Guide (2nd Edition, 2009). He has published numerous other books on organisational culture and leadership skills. 4 The British spelling of the words ‘organisation’ and ‘organisational’ are used throughout, unless quoting from a source using US English in which case the US English spellings - ‘organization’ and ‘organizational’ - are retained. 5 E. Schein, Organizational Culture and Leadership 4th Edition (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2010), 3 6 Ibid., 3 2 values of Christian organisations, then this means a valuable tool becomes available to the Christian leader. The case study is preceded by a theological reflection in which the use of ‘managerial’7 theories and methods, such as Schein’s theory of organisational culture, is questioned. Although in the case study it will be seen that Schein’s theory proves itself to be very useful in understanding the organisational values of a Christian organisation, in the theological reflection some major limitations are identified. These exist because a theory like Schein’s takes no account of the uniquely Christian dimension of Christian organisations. The primary concern addressed in the theological reflection is that such approaches as Schein’s theory are based on a secular worldview and so, it could be argued, they are inherently inconsistent with adoption into a Christian context. This discussion concludes with a way forward, and later in the thesis this proposed way forward is applied to the case study of Across. The research method involves a case study of Across. Across is a Christian mission organisation working in South Sudan,8 which was founded in 1972 at the end of the First Sudanese Civil War. The research focuses on the Across organisation between 1972 and 2005, which is when the Second Sudanese Civil War came to an end. The method uses empirical material, which is the case study, to reflect back on a theoretical framework, being Edgar Schein’s theory of organisational culture. This method leads to a two stage process being followed. Firstly, analysing the organisational values of the mission agency Across from 1972 to 2005 using Edgar Schein’s theory as set out in his influential book Organizational Culture and Leadership.9 The value of this kind of analysis is summed up by a Christian author, 7 This term is used in a Christian context by Samuel Escobar to label what he sees as the secular, ‘anti- theological’ approach which seeks ‘to reduce Christian mission to a manageable enterprise’.