Combinatorics of Sets Po-Shen Loh June 2011 1 Warm-Up 1. Let F be a collection of subsets A1;A2;::: of f1; : : : ; ng, such that for each i 6= j, Ai \ Aj 6= ;. Prove that F has size at most 2n−1. Solution: For each set S 2 2[n], observe that at most one of S and S is contained in F. 2. Suppose that F above has size exactly 2n−1. Must there be a common element x 2 f1; : : : ; ng which is contained by every Ai? Solution: No. First, observe that in [3], one can create an intersecting family with the four sets f1; 2g, f2; 3g, f3; 1g, and f1; 2; 3g. Then for every n ≥ 3, one can blow up this construction by taking all sets S which are obtained by taking the union of one of these 4 sets together with an arbitrary subset of f4; : : : ; ng. 3. Let F be a family of sets, each of size exactly 3, such that: (a) Every pair of sets intersects in a single element. S (b) Every pair of elements in the ground set X = S2F S is contained in a unique set S 2 F. Suppose that F has more than one set. Prove that the ground set X has exactly 7 elements, and show that such a family F exists. Solution: Let L be the number of \lines," i.e., sets in F, and let n be the size of the ground set. Observations: n−1 • The degree of any element is exactly 2 , because of (b). 1 n • The number of lines is L = 3 2 because of (a). But by double-counting, we must have: X dv L = : 2 2 v2X Substituting our expressions for dv and L, we conclude that 1 n − 1 n − 3 L(L − 1) n(n − 1) (n − 3)(n + 2) n · · = = · 2 2 2 2 6 6 1 n + 2 = 4 36 7 = n : The Fano plane provides the desired construction. 1 2 Designs 1. (TST 2005/1.) Let n be an integer greater than 1. For a positive integer m, let Xm = f1; 2; : : : ; mng. Suppose that there exists a family F of 2n subsets of Xm such that: (a) each member of F is an m-element subset of Xm; (b) each pair of members of F shares at most one common element; (c) each element of Xm is contained in exactly 2 elements of F. Determine the maximum possible value of m in terms of n. Solution: Count in two ways: X dv 2n = # set pairs intersect ≤ : 2 2 v But all dv = 2, so we have mn ≤ n(2n − 1), i.e., m ≤ 2n − 1. Equality is possible: take 2n lines in 2 2n general position in R , and let their 2 = mn intersection points be the points. 2. (USAMO 2011/6.) Let X be a set with jXj = 225. Suppose further that there are eleven subsets A1;:::;A11 of X such that jAij = 45 for 1 ≤ i ≤ 11 and jAi \ Ajj = 9 for 1 ≤ i < j ≤ 11. Prove that jA1 [···[ A11j ≥ 165, and give an example for which equality holds. Solution: The jXj = 225 condition is unnecessary. Count in two ways: X dv 11 = · 9 = 495 : 2 2 v2X P dv But also v2X dv = 11 · 45 = 495. This suggests that equality occurs when all dv = 2 , which is precisely at dv = 3. Indeed, by Cauchy-Schwarz, if we let Let n = jXj, we find !2 ! ! X X X 2 1dv ≤ 1 dv v2X v2X v2X 4952 ≤ n · 3 · 495 ; P 2 P dv P where we deduced dv = 3 · 495 from 2 and dv. We conclude that n ≥ 165. 3 11 For the construction, take 11 planes in general position in R , and let their 3 = 165 points of intersection be the points in the set. 3. A collection of subsets L1;:::;Lm in the universe f1; : : : ; ng is called a projective plane if: (a) Every pair of sets (called \lines") intersects in a single element. S (b) Every pair of elements in the ground set X = L2F S is contained in a unique set L 2 F. Actually, there are two families of degenerate planes which satisfy the two conditions above, but are not considered to be projective planes. They are: (a) L1 = f1; : : : ; ng, L2 = f1g, L3 = f1g, L4 = f1g,... (b) L1 = f2; 3; : : : ; ng, L2 = f1; 2g, L3 = f1; 3g, L4 = f1; 4g,..., Ln = f1; ng. It is well-known that for every projective plane, there is an N (called the \order" of the plane) such that: 2 (a) Every line contains exactly N + 1 points, and every point is on exactly N + 1 lines. (b) The total number of points is exactly N 2 + N + 1, which is the same as the total number of lines. 4. For every prime power pn, there exists a projective plane of that order. Solution: Take the finite field of order q = pn. Let the points be dimension-1 subspaces of 3, Fq Fq and let the lines be dimension-2 subspaces (i.e., the collection of dimension-1 subspaces that lie within a given dimension-2 subspace). Every pair of dimension-2 subspaces intersects in a subspace, which has integer dimension. That dimension is obviously strictly less than 2, but also cannot be 0 or else we would have had mutually independent bases of the pair of dimension-2 subspaces, already yielding dimension 4 for the parent space. Hence every pair of dimension-2 subspaces intersects in a dimension-1 subspace, i.e., containing a single point. Also, every pair of dimension-1 subspaces determines a pair of linearly independent basis vectors, whose span is already dimension-2. So For every pair of dimension-1 subspaces, there is a unique dimension-2 subspace that contains both of them. Observe that by calculation, the number of dimension-1 subspaces inside a fixed dimension-2 subspace q2−1 2 is exactly q−1 = q + 1, because there are q nonzero vectors in the dimension-2 subspace, and every pair of dimension-1 subspaces intersects only at the zero vector. Hence the order is q = pn. 5. (Open.) What are the possible orders of projective planes? All known projective planes have prime power order, but it is unknown whether, for example, there is a projective plane of order 12. 3 Graphs and partitioning 1. Construct a bipartite graph in which all degrees are equal, and every pair of vertices on the same side has exactly 1 common neighbor. Show that this must achieve the maximum possible number of edges in any C4-free bipartite graph with the same number of vertices. Solution: Take a projective plane, and create a graph by putting the points on the left, and the lines on the right, connecting a point to a line if they are incident. The codegree conditions are satisfied by the definition of a projective plane. Now suppose we have a C4-free bipartite graph with n vertices on each side. Count the number of K1;2 with 2 points on the Right side. This is n X dv d ≥ ≥ n ; 2 2 2 v with equality precisely when the degrees are all equal, and when every pair on the Right side has codegree exactly 1. Since we are optimizing the average degree, this implies the result. 2. Construct a non-bipartite graph in which all degrees are equal, and every pair of vertices has exactly 1 common neighbor. Show that this must achieve the maximum possible number of edges in any C4-free graph with the same number of vertices. Solution: Consider F3, and associate every vertex with a 1-dimensional subspace. Join two vertices by an edge if their two subspaces are orthogonal. But given two distinct subspaces, there is a unique 1-dimensional subspace orthogonal to both of them. Another way to see this is to say that we join two vertices if one of the dimension-1 subspaces lies within the orthogonal complement (dimension-2 subspace) of the other vertex. Then if we are given two distinct dimension-1 subspaces, the number of common neighbors is the number of common dimension-2 subspaces that contain both, and this is the same calculation as above. For tightness, take the same sum of all K1;2 throughout the graph. 3 n−1 3. Let n be odd. Partition the edge set of Kn into n matchings with 2 edges each. Solution: Spread the n vertices around a circle. Take parallel classes. n 4. Let n be even. Partition the edge set of Kn into n − 1 matchings with 2 edges each. Solution: Spread n − 1 vertices around a circle, and let the final vertex be the origin. Take parallel classes, along with the orthogonal radius from the origin. 5. Find (nontrivial) infinite families of t and n for which it is possible to partition the edges of Kn into disjoint copies of edges corresponding to Kt. Solution: Suppose n = q2 + q + 1 for a prime power q. Take a projective plane, and identify the vertices of Kn with the points. The cliques Kt correspond to the lines. Alternatively, suppose n = q2 for a prime power q. Take the affine plane, i.e., points corresponding to 2 Fq. Lines correspond to the points in affine lines, i.e., with q points each. It is clear that every pair of points determines a unique line, hence every edge is in a unique Kq. 4 Extremal set theory 1. (Erd}os-Ko-Rado.) Let n ≥ 2k be positive integers, and let C be a collection of pairwise-intersecting n−1 k-element subsets of f1; : : : ; ng, i.e., every A; B 2 C has A \ B 6= ;.