AT THE CROSSROADS OF LICIT AND ILLICIT Tramadol and other pharmaceutical opioids trafficking in West Africa 2021 AT THE CROSSROADS OF LICIT AND ILLICIT Tramadol and other pharmaceutical opioids trafficking in West Africa 2021 Disclaimers The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC, Member States, or contributory organizations, and neither do they imply any endorsement. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNODC or the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Cover photo © NDLEA, Apapa seaport, Nigeria Website: www.unodc.org Supported by Response to Drugs and Related Organized Crime in Nigeria At the Crossroads of Licit and Illicit: Tramadol and other pharmaceutical opioids trafficking in West Africa Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................................................................................v Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................................................... vii Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................................... viii Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................................1 I. The West African pharmaceutical opioid crisis ................................................................................................4 A. The genesis of a crisis ........................................................................................................................ 4 B. The structural roots of a crisis ........................................................................................................... 5 C. A mass-consumption drug ................................................................................................................ 8 D. A public health and social issue ........................................................................................................ 9 II. The scope and characteristics of tramadol trafficking................................................................................11 A. Hundreds of tons seized .................................................................................................................. 11 B. Tablets with unapproved dosages .................................................................................................. 12 C. Most widespread products and others ........................................................................................... 14 D. The chemical content of tablets at stake ........................................................................................ 15 III. Geography of production .......................................................................................................................................... 17 A. Imports from Asia ............................................................................................................................ 17 B. West African production .................................................................................................................. 19 C. Suspicions of clandestine labs ........................................................................................................ 20 D. Export regulations as game changers ............................................................................................. 21 IV. Overview of transnational routes ......................................................................................................................... 25 A. From Asia to West Africa .................................................................................................................. 25 B. Main regional entry points .............................................................................................................. 27 C. West African routes .......................................................................................................................... 30 V. Modi operandi of traffickers ...................................................................................................................................32 A. Maritime transport .......................................................................................................................... 32 B. Air transport ..................................................................................................................................... 32 C. Land transport ................................................................................................................................. 34 D. Exploiting vulnerabilities ................................................................................................................. 36 E. Corruption as key facilitator ............................................................................................................ 37 VI. Organized crime networks and traffickers’ profiles ....................................................................................39 A. A tangle of networks ........................................................................................................................ 39 B. Overlapping of the legal and the illegal drug sectors .................................................................... 40 iii At the Crossroads of Licit and Illicit: Tramadol and other pharmaceutical opioids trafficking in West Africa Table of Contents (contd) C. State officials and trafficking .......................................................................................................... 41 D. Terrorist groups and tramadol: reassessing the debate ................................................................ 42 E. Tramadol traffickers and other types of trafficking ....................................................................... 44 VII. The way forward ..........................................................................................................................................................46 A. Adaptive criminal networks ............................................................................................................ 46 B. Diversion as an alternative supply source ...................................................................................... 47 C. Toward stronger opioids? ................................................................................................................ 48 D. The need for a comprehensive approach ....................................................................................... 49 VIII. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................................51 IX. Policy implications .....................................................................................................................................................53 Annex 1: Examples of tramadol pills and capsules circulating in West Africa (April 2018–June 2019) ............................................................................................................................................................ 58 1. Green capsules (120 mg) ................................................................................................................. 58 2. Red pills (from 200 to 250 mg) ........................................................................................................ 59 3. White pills (225 mg) ......................................................................................................................... 60 Annex 2: List of institutions and stakeholders consulted during field missions .............................................61 iv Acknowledgements This study was conducted by the UNODC Country Office for Nigeria (CONIG) and Regional Office for West and Central Africa (ROSEN), with research support provided by UNODC’s Research and Trend Analysis Branch. It was entirely funded by the European Union under the project “Response to Drugs and Related Organized Crime in Nigeria”, implemented by UNODC in partnership with the Government of Nigeria. This project aims to support Nigeria’s efforts to fight drug production, trafficking and use, and to curb related organized crime. The project adopts a balanced approach to drug control, with equal attention paid to drug interdiction and drug demand reduction, including drug prevention, treatment and care (DPTC). This report would not have been possible without the data and information reported by governments to UNODC and other international organizations. In particular, UNODC would like to acknowledge the following for their invaluable contributions to this research: the Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Justice of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and its Narcotics and Controlled Substances (NCS) Directorate, the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA)