CONSERVATION, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ECOTOURJSM IN SOUTH AFRICA AND KWAZULU-NATAL: A POLICY-ANALYSIS by Anne Sylvie Slembrouck Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Political Studies, University of Natal Pietermaritzburg November 1995 ii ABSTRACT The thesis explores the realms of conservation and sustainable development. A growing environmental concern is characteristic of the twentfeth century. Never before has mankind been so aware of the greenhouse effect or the hole in the " ozone. It is a concern which affects our understanding of human interactions with one another, as well as with our environment. Development is finally being scrutinized by scientists and philosophers alike. The consequence is a global movement towards the virtuous utopia of sustainable development. The thesis examines the evolution of environmentalism, both in a global context and here·in South Africa. It clarifies the relationship between the earth's natural resources and humanity's obsession with progress. The world is no longer a web of isolated countries. Technology and transport facilitate international movement which in turn fosters foreign cultural contact. { Tourism is a leisure-orientated activity which is expanding feverishly worldwide. Tourism is often seen as enabling development. For some countries, it is a major source of revenue. This shows that tourism can impact tremendously on the people of a country. Research has proved that tourism affects a country's people as well as their natural or build environment. Ecotourlsm, which is tourism based on natural resources, needs sensitive management which would react to a particular country's fragility. The thesis therefore investigates ecotourism to South Africa in general, and KwaZulu-Natal in particular. It is argued that ecotourism needs to be sensitive iii to the region, its people and their natural assets. This can only occur if protection measures against exploitation are set up. Measures which would ensure that local people benefit and that growth and progress prevaii, not exploitation. Conclusions drawn show that the 'tourist' or 'international tour operator' are not the sole bearers of all 'evil' in the tourism industry. Government and government institutions have an obligation to protect their citizen from exploitative forces. They are responsible for providing an 'environment which is not to the detriment of our health'. How can one determine whether such a responsibility has been, or is being realised? The thesis examines all official documents and white papers pertaining to conservation, sustainable development and ecotourism in South Africa and KwaZulu-Natal. Jv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am mostly indebted to my supervisor, Ralph Lawrence, whose guidance has been invaluable. I owe him a special thanks for his endless support and encouragement. The financial assistance of the Centre for Science Development (HSRC, South Africa) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the Centre for Science Development. The Graduate Scholarship from the University of Natal is appreciatively recognised for its financial assistance in the duration of the research. Thanks also to Heidi Snyman from the Natal Parks Board, and Toni Bodington at the Cartography Unit, (Geography Department, University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg) for the maps provided. A special note of· appreciation also to Sharon Dell for her thoroughness in proofreading the thesis. Last, but not least, to Sean, who not only survived my environmental preoccupation but motivated me to persevere. DECLARATION Except where explicitly indicated to the contrary, this study is the- original work of the author. This dissertation has not previously been submitted in any form to another university. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ' II ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .. .. .. .. .. iv DECLARATION . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. iv UST OF TABLES, MAPS, DIAGRAMS AND APPENDIXES . .. vi ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYM LIST . .. .. ......... vii INTRODUCTION . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 CHAPTER ONE Conservation - the ambiguities . .. .. 10 CHAPTER TWO The Challenge of Resource Management in South Africa . .. 29 CHAPTER THREE The Region KwaZulu-Natal . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 53 CHAPTER FOUR Tourism . .. .. .. 80 CHAPTER FIVE Ecotourism is... ..................................... 100 CHAPTER SIX An Argument for Local Community Participation .............. 135 CHAPTER SEVEN Environmental Management .... .. ................... ... 167 CHAPTER EIGHT Looking Ahead .... .............. , .................. 185 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................... 205 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Sustainable Development Requirements ........... p42 Table 3.1 Liabilities and Assets of KwaZulu-Natal ............ p64 Table 4.1 South Africa's Biodiversity .........•..........p85 Table 4.2 Types of Employment Tourism Provides ........... p87 Table 4.3 KwaZulu-Natal's Biodiversity ................... p98 Table 6.1 Benefits of Revenue-Sharing with Local Communities .............................p155 Table 6.2 The Hwange Principles ......_ ................ pl 56 LIST OF MAPS Map 3.1 Republic of South Africa ...................... p54 Map 3.2 KwaZulu-Natal .............................p56 Map 3.3 Land under Conservation in KwaZulu-Natal ......... p68 Map 3.4 Natal Parks Board's Neighbours' Programmes ....... p76 LIST OF DIAGRAM Diagram 1.1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Human Needs ............. p19 Diagram 7.1 Government Departments Relevant to Ecotourism ... p176 LIST OF APPENDIXES Appendix 8.1 Extracts from: ANC Draft Bill of Rights ..................... p199 The Reconstruction and Development Programme ... p201 Appendix 8. 2 SA TOUR' s Policy Framework .. .. ....... p204 vii ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYM LIST AFRA Association for Rural Advancement ANC African National Congress CAMPFIRE The Communal Area Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and Wild Fauna and Flora CORO Centre for Community Organisation Research & Development COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions CSIR The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DBSA Development Bank of South Africa DEA&T Department of Environment Affairs and Tourism DP Democratic Party EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EJNF Environmental Justice Networking Forum GDP Gross Domestic Product GEM Group for Environmental Monitoring GNU Government of National Unity HSRC Human Sciences Research Council IDRC International Development Research Centre IFP lnkatha Freedom Party INR Institute of Natural Resources viii IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources KBNR KwaZulu Bureau of Natural Resources KDNC KwaZulu Department of Nature Conservation NEAC National Environmental Awareness Campaign NEAF National Environmental Advisory Forum NGO Non Governmental Organisation NP National Party OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PAC Pan Africanist Congress PPP Polluter Pays Principle ADP Reconstruction and Development Programme SACOB South African Chamber of Business SACP South African Communist Party SADC Southern African Development Community SANCO South African National Civics Organisation UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WLS Wildlife·society of Southern Africa WWF World Wide Fund for Nature ZEAL The Zululand Environmental Alliance 1 INTRODUCTION Conservationists and developers have long been antagonists. They primarily seem to view one another as threatening. The more development takes place, the fewer natural resources are left over. The more land put under conservation, the less remains for progress. Can this antagonism ever be resolved? The fundamental aim of my thesis is to explore the feasibility of a harmonious relationship between conservation and development� Environmental deterioration has compelled a confrontation between developers and environmentalists. Some environmental problems can be classified and understood. For example, acid rain is due to atmospheric pollution, therefore new ways of reducing harmful emission are sought, and cooperation between developers and environmentalists is initiated. , However one question escapes scientific substantiation: why conserve the environment?. It Is one which is very relevant in an South African context because it questions the purpose of conservation at a time when people are fighting poverty. This is a question based on what is good, right or obligatory . 1 It is an ethical question which attempts to provide a normative basis for environmental conservation. 2 Both international and South African conservation strategies which were 1 Fuggle, R.F. 'Environmental Management' in Fuggle, R.F. and Rabie, M.A. (eds) Environmental Management in South Africa. Cape Town: Juta. 1993: 8. 21bid. 2 3 developed in the late 1970's are based on the credo "conservation is for man" , which reasons that conservation is based on the environment's utility to humans. So today a widely accepted reason advanced for environmental conservation is that such action will produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people for the greatest period of time. 4 This is an anthropocentric view of an conservation ethic: conservation in the interest of the survival