UNHEARD VOICES AT THE TEXAS-MEXICO BORDER WALL: FRAGMENTATION, CITIZENSHIP, AND OPPOSITION IN A WAR ON TERROR _______________________________________ A Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School at the University of Missouri-Columbia _______________________________________________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy _____________________________________________________ by JENNIFER G. CORREA Dr. Ibitola Pearce, Dissertation Supervisor JULY 2011 © Copyright by Jennifer G. Correa 2011 All Rights Reserved The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the dissertation entitled UNHEARD VOICES AT THE TEXAS-MEXICO BORDER WALL: FRAGMENTATION, CITIZENSHIP, AND OPPOSITION IN A WAR ON TERROR presented by Jennifer G. Correa, a candidate for the degree of doctor of philosophy and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor Ibitola Pearce Professor Jaber Gubrium Professor Amit Prasad Professor Lisa Y. Flores Professor Mary Romero ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research project came to fruition because a number of people stood by my side. First, I would like to give a heartfelt thanks to my dissertation chair, mentor, and friend Dr. Ibitola “Tola” Pearce. Dr. Pearce’s patience, understanding, and enduring commitment never failed and never grew weary. Dr. Pearce’s knowledge and scholarly work involving women, rights, race, and globalization were instrumental in the dissertation project. In addition, she was a major support system through the ups and the downs of being in a PhD graduate program. Dr. Pearce is the kind of scholar and woman I aspire to be. Thank you for guiding me in this intellectual and professional journey. Secondly, my dissertation committee – Dr. Jaber “Jay” Gubrium, Dr. Amit Prasad, Dr. Mary Romero, and Dr. Lisa Y. Flores supported me at every step of the way. Dr. Gubrium kept me on my toes in theorizing about “the State,” and his critical questions and insightful feedback continue to guide my work. Dr. Amit Prasad’s theory courses influenced my thinking on the State, nation, and citizenship and aided in formulating the theoretical underpinnings for the dissertation. Dr. Mary Romero has been a constant source of inspiration as a Latina scholar in the academy. She is a renowned scholar in the areas of Latina/o sociology, immigration, citizenship, and race and this background played in fundamental role in shaping my research questions and methodology. Dr. Romero’s influential concepts and theories in Latina/o sociology informed my own ideas for this project. Also an influential Latina scholar, Dr. Lisa Y. Flores’s expertise in Mexican Americans and Latina/o immigrants as well as her experiential knowledge of the Texas border region where I conducted was tremendously helpful. ii Furthermore, I would like to thank Mary Oakes and Debbie Friedrich our MU Sociology Administrative personnel for all their assistance and guidance as a graduate student and instructor. In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Clarence Lo for believing in me and nominating me for the Gus T. Ridgel Fellowship. The Ridgel Fellowship provided me with much needed financial support throughout my five years as a PhD student. Furthermore, I thank Dr. George Justice, Associate Dean, at the MU Graduate School for providing me with support and mentorship during my time at MU. Finally, I would like to extend a huge “thank you” to Mr. Michael Moore IT Specialist here at Mizzou for assisting me with the formatting of this dissertation. As the saying goes, “we never do anything alone” – we always have people helping us along the way. Thank you all very much for your help, time, and commitment to me and this project! iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................ ii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................... 1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1 Research Questions...................................................................................................................... 1 Significance ................................................................................................................................. 2 Project Roadmap.......................................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ............................................................... 5 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 5 Mexican Americans in the Southwest ......................................................................................... 5 Policing the “Frontier” for Over 175 Years............................................................................... 16 Texas Rangers ....................................................................................................................... 16 U.S. Customs and Border Protection (Border Patrol) ........................................................... 19 State Laws Against Terrorism ................................................................................................... 25 Federal Inter-Agency Cooperation Against the War on Terror................................................. 29 Department of Homeland Security........................................................................................ 29 Department of Justice: The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)...................................... 32 The State and the Complexities of Securing the Texas-Mexico Border.................................... 34 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 39 CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................... 41 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 41 Social Construction of Latinas/os: Anti-Mexican Hysteria....................................................... 41 Implications of a State-Waged War Against Immigrants.......................................................... 44 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 48 CHAPTER 4: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK............................................................ 50 Introduction................................................................................................................................ 50 State, Nation, and Power Theories............................................................................................. 50 Feminist Theories ...................................................................................................................... 57 Critical Race Theory.................................................................................................................. 61 Borderland Studies..................................................................................................................... 68 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................................... 76 CHAPTER 5: METHODOLOGY AND METHOD ....................................................... 80 Situating the Research/Researcher............................................................................................. 80 Methods ..................................................................................................................................... 83 Brief Description of the Setting................................................................................................. 89 Research Limitations ................................................................................................................. 93 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ........................................................................... 93 CHAPTER 6: FINDINGS Protecting the Homeland: Fragmentation of State Agents . 101 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 101 Beneficial Deterrent from the Other ........................................................................................ 103 Procurement of American Economy........................................................................................ 106 Social Paranoia and State Action............................................................................................. 110 iv Summary.................................................................................................................................. 117 CHAPTER 7: FINDINGS Local Government Officials Contending with Federal State Actions ............................................................................................................................ 119 Introduction.............................................................................................................................. 119 State Imposition and Dismissal of Local Knowledge.............................................................. 120 Acquiescing to the Federal