Power and Patronage in Pakistan by Stephen M. Lyon B.Sc. (London) 1993 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology UNIVERSITY of KENT, CANTERBURY Dr. Peter S. C. Parkes, Supervisor February 2002 Power and Patronage in Pakistan Copyright 2002 by Stephen M. Lyon All rights reserved Abstract Power and Patronage in Pakistan by Stephen M. Lyon Doctor of Philosophy in Social Anthropology University of Kent, Canterbury Dr. Peter S. C. Parkes, Supervisor Asymmetrical power relationships are found throughout Pakistan’s Punjabi and Pukhtun communities. This thesis argues that these relationships must be examined as manifestations of cultural continuity rather than as separate structures. The various cultures of Pakistan display certain common cultural features which suggest a re- examination of past analytical divisions of tribe and peasant societies. This thesis looks at the ways power is expressed, accumulated and maintained in three social contexts: kinship, caste and political relationships. These three social contexts are embedded within a collection of ‘hybridising’ cultures (i.e. cultures which exhibit strong mechanisms for cultural accommodation without loss of ‘identity’). Socialisation within kin groups provides the building blocks for Pakistani asymmetrical relationships, which may usefully be understood as a form of patronage. As these social building blocks are transferred to non-kin contexts the patron/client aspects are more easily identified and studied; however, this thesis argues that the core relationship roles exist even in close kinship contexts. The emphasis on asymmetry in personal relationships leads to rivalries between individuals who do not agree with each other’s claims to equality or superiority. There are mechanisms for defusing the tension and conflict when such disagreements arise. State politics and religion are examined for the ways in which these patron/client roles are enacted on much larger scales but remain embedded within, and must respect, the cultural values underpinning those roles. Power and Patronage in Pakistan Table of Contents Preface . iv CHAPTER 1 Power, patronage and ‘hybridization’ . 1 Power . 3 Patronage. 6 Crossroads cultures: areas of ‘hybridization’ . 12 Central Asia and the Middle East . 15 India . 16 Hierarchy and dominance . 17 Important concepts from the anthropology of the Middle East and the Mediterranean . 18 Discourses of honour, power, violence and hierarchy . 21 Important concepts from the anthropology of India . 25 Conclusion . 27 CHAPTER 2 The village, region and methods . 29 The Country . 29 The Village and Region . 30 Demographics . 31 Physical environment. 33 Village history . 36 Religion: Sunni Islam, Barelvi, Wahabi . 39 District and regional identity . 39 Methods . 42 Going into ‘business’. 43 Map making . 44 Interviews. 45 Computers, the internet and websites . 46 Fieldnotes. 47 CHAPTER 3 A selected anthropology of Pakistan. 50 The nature of political leadership . 52 Caste . 58 Class . 59 Agnatic rivalry and izzat. 64 Conclusion . 66 CHAPTER 4 Family Relations . 70 Family defined . 72 Life-cycle . 73 Childhood: early socialisation of status, group identification and dependency . 74 The school years . 80 Early adulthood . 81 Case study: Early adulthood aggression . 83 The real tests . 86 Case study One: This generation’s heads of households . 86 Case study Two: Next generation’s heads of households. 87 Consolidation and expansion. 88 Letting go. 92 Patronage within the family . 93 Conclusion . 94 CHAPTER 5 Labour Relations . 97 Home servants . 98 The status of home servants. 98 How home servants are controlled and disciplined. 103 A case of non-punishment . 103 Punishment perceived to be unjust. 106 Sharecroppers . 109 How sharecroppers are found. 109 How sharecroppers are controlled or dismissed. 111 Case one: forcibly driving a sharecropper from a plot of land. 111 Case two: displacing sharecroppers from the region. ..