EMPLOYEE ATTITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION Lise M. Saari and Timothy A. Judge This article identifies three major gaps between HR practice and the scientific research in the area of employee attitudes in general and the most focal employee attitude in particular—job satisfaction: (1) the causes of employee attitudes, (2) the results of positive or negative job satis- faction, and (3) how to measure and influence employee attitudes. Suggestions for practition- ers are provided on how to close the gaps in knowledge and for evaluating implemented prac- tices. Future research will likely focus on greater understanding of personal characteristics, such as emotion, in defining job satisfaction and how employee attitudes influence organizational performance. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. “Happy employees are productive employ- this area are: (1) the causes of employee at- ees.” “Happy employees are not productive titudes, (2) the results of positive or negative employees.” We hear these conflicting state- job satisfaction, and (3) how to measure and ments made by HR professionals and man- influence employee attitudes. Within each agers in organizations. There is confusion gap area, we provide a review of the scien- and debate among practitioners on the topic tific research and recommendations for of employee attitudes and job satisfaction— practitioners related to the research find- even at a time when employees are increas- ings. In the final section, additional recom- ingly important for organizational success mendations for enhancing organizational and competitiveness. Therefore, the purpose practice in the area of employee attitudes of this article is to provide greater under- and job satisfaction are described, along standing of the research on this topic and with suggestions for evaluating the imple- give recommendations related to the major mented practices. practitioner knowledge gaps. Before beginning, we should describe As indicated indirectly in a study of HR what we mean by employee attitudes and job professionals (Rynes, Colbert, & Brown, satisfaction. Employees have attitudes or 2002), as well as based on our experience, viewpoints about many aspects of their jobs, the major practitioner knowledge gaps in their careers, and their organizations. How- Correspondence to: Lise M. Saari, IBM Corporation, Global Workforce Research, North Castle Drive MD 149, Armonk, NY 10504-1785, tel: 914-765-4224, [email protected] Human Resource Management, Winter 2004, Vol. 43, No. 4, Pp. 395–407 © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/hrm.20032 396 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Winter 2004 ever, from the perspective of research and study, childhood temperament was found to practice, the most focal employee attitude is be statistically related to adult job satisfac- job satisfaction. Thus, we often refer to em- tion up to 40 years later (Staw, Bell, & ployee attitudes broadly in this article, al- Clausen, 1986). Evidence even indicates though much of our specific focus will con- that the job satisfaction of identical twins Evidence even cern job satisfaction. reared apart is statistically similar (see indicates that The most-used research definition of job Arvey, Bouchard, Segal, & Abraham, 1989). the job satisfaction is by Locke (1976), who defined Although this literature has had its critics satisfaction of identical twins it as “. a pleasurable or positive emotional (e.g., Davis-Blake & Pfeffer, 1989), an ac- reared apart is state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job cumulating body of evidence indicates that statistically or job experiences” (p. 1304). Implicit in differences in job satisfaction across em- similar. Locke’s definition is the importance of both ployees can be traced, in part, to differences affect, or feeling, and cognition, or thinking. in their disposition or temperament (House, When we think, we have feelings about what Shane, & Herold, 1996). we think. Conversely, when we have feelings, Despite its contributions to our under- we think about what we feel. Cognition and standing of the causes of job satisfaction, affect are thus inextricably linked, in our psy- one of the limitations in this literature is that chology and even in our biology. Thus, when it is not yet informative as to how exactly dis- evaluating our jobs, as when we assess most positions affect job satisfaction (Erez, 1994). anything important to us, both thinking and Therefore, researchers have begun to explore feeling are involved. the psychological processes that underlie dis- positional causes of job satisfaction. For ex- Gap 1—The Causes of Employee ample, Weiss and Cropanzano (1996) sug- Attitudes gest that disposition may influence the experience of emotionally significant events The first major practitioner knowledge gap at work, which in turn influences job satis- we will address is the causes of employee at- faction. Similarly, Brief (1998) and Mo- titudes and job satisfaction. In general, HR towidlo (1996) have developed theoretical practitioners understand the importance of models in an attempt to better understand the work situation as a cause of employee at- the relationship between dispositions and job titudes, and it is an area HR can help influ- satisfaction. ence through organizational programs and Continuing this theoretical develop- management practices. However, in the past ment, Judge and his colleagues (Judge & two decades, there have been significant re- Bono, 2001; Judge, Locke, Durham, & search gains in understanding dispositional Kluger, 1998) found that a key personality and cultural influences on job satisfaction as trait, core self-evaluation, correlates with (is well, which is not yet well understood by statistically related to) employee job satisfac- practitioners. In addition, one of the most tion. They also found that one of the primary important areas of the work situation to in- causes of the relationship was through the fluence job satisfaction—the work itself—is perception of the job itself. Thus, it appears often overlooked by practitioners when ad- that the most important situational effect on dressing job satisfaction. job satisfaction—the job itself—is linked to what may be the most important personality Dispositional Influences trait to predict job satisfaction—core self- evaluation. Evidence also indicates that Several innovative studies have shown the some other personality traits, such as extra- influences of a person’s disposition on job version and conscientiousness, can also in- satisfaction. One of the first studies in this fluence job satisfaction (Judge, Heller, & area (Staw & Ross, 1985) demonstrated Mount, 2002). that a person’s job satisfaction scores have These various research findings indicate stability over time, even when he or she that there is in fact a relationship between changes jobs or companies. In a related disposition or personality and job satisfac- Employee Attitudes and Job Satisfaction • 397 tion. Even though organizations cannot di- also been found in how employees are rectly impact employee personality, the use viewed and valued across countries/cultures of sound selection methods and a good (Jackson, 2002)—countries systematically match between employees and jobs will en- vary on the extent to which they view em- Even though sure people are selected and placed into jobs ployees in instrumental versus humanistic organizations cannot directly most appropriate for them, which, in turn, ways. In terms of practical recommenda- impact will help enhance their job satisfaction. tions, an awareness of, and, whenever possi- employee ble, adjustments to, cultural factors that personality, the Cultural Influences influence employee attitudes and measure- use of sound ment are important for HR practitioners as selection In terms of other influences on employee at- employee attitude surveys increasingly cross methods and a good match titudes, there is also a small, but growing national boundaries. between body of research on the influences of culture employees and or country on employee attitudes and job sat- Work Situation Influences jobs will ensure isfaction. The continued globalization of or- people are ganizations poses new challenges for HR As discussed earlier, the work situation also selected and placed into jobs practitioners, and the available research on matters in terms of job satisfaction and or- most cross-cultural organizational and human re- ganization impact. Contrary to some com- appropriate for sources issues can help them better under- monly held practitioner beliefs, the most no- them, which, in stand and guide practice (Erez, 1994; House, table situational influence on job satisfaction turn, will help 1995; Triandis, 1994). is the nature of the work itself—often called enhance their job satisfaction. The most cited cross-cultural work on “intrinsic job characteristics.” Research stud- employee attitudes is that of Hofstede (1980, ies across many years, organizations, and 1985). He conducted research on employee types of jobs show that when employees are attitude data in 67 countries and found that asked to evaluate different facets of their job the data grouped into four major dimensions such as supervision, pay, promotion opportu- and that countries systematically varied nities, coworkers, and so forth, the nature of along these dimensions. The four cross-cul- the work itself generally emerges as the most tural dimensions are: (1) individualism-col- important job facet (Judge & Church,