Duquesne University Duquesne Scholarship Collection Electronic Theses and Dissertations Summer 8-6-2016 Conflict and Reconciliation: Representations of Christianity in Contemporary Native American Literature by Women Rachel Luckenbill Duquesne University Follow this and additional works at: https://dsc.duq.edu/etd Recommended Citation Luckenbill, R. (2016). Conflict and Reconciliation: Representations of Christianity in Contemporary Native American Literature by Women (Doctoral dissertation, Duquesne University). Retrieved from https://dsc.duq.edu/etd/1823 This One-year Embargo is brought to you for free and open access by Duquesne Scholarship Collection. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Duquesne Scholarship Collection. CONFLICT AND RECONCILIATION: REPRESENTATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY IN CONTEMPORARY NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE BY WOMEN A Dissertation Submitted to the McAnulty College and Graduate School of Liberal Arts Duquesne University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Rachel Luckenbill August 2016 Copyright by Rachel Luckenbill 2016 CONFLICT AND RECONCILIATION: REPRESENTATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY IN CONTEMPORARY NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE BY WOMEN By Rachel Luckenbill Approved May 2, 2016 ________________________________ ________________________________ Dr. Linda Kinnahan Dr. Kathy Glass Professor of English Associate Professor of English (Committee Chair) (Committee Member) ________________________________ Dr. Cari Carpenter Associate Professor of English (Committee Member) ________________________________ ________________________________ Dr. James Swindal Dr. Greg Barnhisel Dean, McAnulty College and Graduate Chair, English School of Liberal Arts Professor of English Professor of Philosophy iii ABSTRACT CONFLICT AND RECONCILIATION: REPRESENTATIONS OF CHRISTIANITY IN CONTEMPORARY NATIVE AMERICAN LITERATURE BY WOMEN By Rachel Luckenbill August 2016 Dissertation supervised by Dr. Linda Kinnahan The Native American literary Renaissance of the 1970s and 1980s created a web of American Indian voices interpreting the past, indicting America’s imperialism alongside Christianity for its participation in conquest, and renegotiating the cultural possibilities and losses resulting from colonial takeover. In contemporary Native America, Christianity is both the subject of controversy and a widely practiced religion. This dissertation explores representations of Christianity in works by four contemporary female Native American authors, Linda Hogan, Louise Erdrich, Diane Glancy, and Joy Harjo. The study’s theoretical framework privileges indigenous voices by relying on a paradigm of reconciliation mapped by Native American activist and attorney Walter Echo-Hawk and by employing ethnographic research methods including an interview study with American Indian women. Gender, story, land, and multiethnic identity surface as major themes throughout the study. Hogan, Erdrich, Glancy, and Harjo each engage in or resist cross-cultural reconciliation iv in the wake of Christianity’s involvement in colonization and assimilation. Hogan focuses on strengthening communities within Native America; Erdrich explores the possibilities and pitfalls of community building between American Indians and Catholic German-Americans; Glancy creates community by giving voice to both Native and non-Native Christians who have been silenced in the past; and Harjo calls for an expansive community that grows across cultural and religious boundaries, resulting in enemies becoming family members. I ultimately argue that imaginative writing makes space for dialogues of reconciliation that are otherwise stifled in the midst of complex and historically tense cultural and socioeconomic circumstances. Together, these writers perform an act of reconciliation that is neither total nor insignificant. Individually acting out aspects of Echo-Hawk’s paradigm for reconciliation, works produced by Hogan, Erdrich, Glancy, and Harjo can be read in tandem as simultaneous expressions of anger, consternation, and indignation over the ravages of colonization and Christianity’s participation in it. The same texts offer creative expressions of possibility and hope for a future marked by distinctive Native American cultural contributions and a revised and repentant Christianity stripped of its institutional sins and characterized instead by the peace and love that persists at the heart of its teachings. v DEDICATION I dedicate this study to the Native American women in Oklahoma who welcomed me into their homes, churches, and workplaces, generously sharing their stories, their heartache, and their hopes. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am deeply grateful to my dissertation committee. Dr. Linda Kinnahan offered unflagging optimism, encouragement, and advocacy, giving me the best blend of support and freedom. Dr. Kathy Glass directed me to resources that changed the course of my work and calmed me with wise perspective and attention to health and wholeness. Dr. Cari Carpenter connected me to colleagues in Oklahoma who have now become friends and helped me approach Native American literature with sensitivity and heightened awareness. I thank Dr. Laurel Willingham-McLain for not only serving as my principal investigator for the interview study but for also being a dear friend and mentor throughout my PhD experience. I have the best husband who has not only been encouraging and supportive but has put his tech savvy skills to use making sure computers and programs did not stand in my way. I also owe a debt of gratitude to the English department faculty at Duquesne University. They have collectively provided mentorship and resources throughout this process. I’m particularly thankful for the guidance offered by Dr. Greg Barnhisel and Dr. Emad Mirmotahari. I thank the English department, the Center for Catholic Intellectual Tradition, and Dean James Swindal of the McAnulty College and Graduate School of Liberal Arts for financially supporting my three research trips to Oklahoma. I am grateful for the hospitality and resources of the West Virginia University Native American Studies program. And last but not least, I think joyfully about all of the people who offered lodging, meals, and friendship as I drove across Oklahoma, conducting interviews, searching through archives, and engaging in cultural experiences. I especially look forward to embarking on exciting new projects with Dr. Kimberly Roppolo Wieser (University of Oklahoma) and am grateful for her kind friendship and guidance over the past year. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... vi Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................ vii Introduction .....................................................................................................................................x Chapter 1: Linda Hogan ..................................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Louise Erdrich .............................................................................................................48 Chapter 3: Diane Glancy ...............................................................................................................95 Chapter 4: Joy Harjo ...................................................................................................................147 Bibliography ...............................................................................................................................199 IRB Protocol Summary Form .....................................................................................................217 IRB Consent Form ......................................................................................................................220 viii Introduction Interviewer: “Is there anything you wish more people knew about your culture or your faith?” Interviewee: “Just to know that we do exist. God made us Native Americans no matter what tribe. God made us that. And I don’t believe that God intended for us to give our culture up to be Christians. But that we could practice who we are, [and] receive Jesus Christ as our Lord and Savior which will really, truly enhance who we are. And I wish more people would understand that.” – Sarah, Mississippi Choctaw1 “I prayed and prayed and I said, ‘Lord, . I want myself – I want to know my own Indian ways’ . because my mom raised me like a non-Indian even though she was Indian. The church we went to had no Indians. We never went to powwows. I never got to go to a lot of things that, after I left high school, they all started going to. And I prayed and prayed and I told God, ‘I’m beginning to feel like I’d just rather be my Indian ways.’ “I do love the Lord and I believe in the name of Jesus and the blood of Jesus. I believe in the Holy Spirit. I believe in everything that the Bible says, but I also know that this brown skin is not gonna turn white.” – Mary, Chiricahua Apache A myriad of tiny sparks lit up the sky each time the men hefted a new massive log onto the fire. Every night the crowd around the circle grew until 200, 300, 400 people