CONVERGENCE: THE IMPACT OF CAPITAL, RACE, ETHNICIW AND GENDER ON LABOUR MIGRATION IN SOUTH AFRICA A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfrllment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts Ln Social Studies By Denise Hildebrand Regina, Saskatchewan March 201 Copyright 201: Denise Hildebrand National Li brary Bibliothèque mationale of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographic Services services biblicographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. rue Wellingtîon Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON KIA ON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distnlwte or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microforrn, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiomit Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels rnay be printed or otherwise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. Abstract Migration theory extends on a continuum of divergent approaches that range from analyses that privilege individual agency to perspectives that give primacy to the stmcniral properties of advanced capitalism. Recent developments seek to synthesize agency and structure, providing analytical space that can enrich the study of labour migration. The application of a structuration mode1 to the specific context of labour migration in southern Anica provides an alternative to counter the sirnpiistic analysis of neocf assical theones and address the limitations of structural theories. While capitaiist development played an overarching role in labour migration, it also converged with the forces of ethnicity, race and gender. This convergence mediated the development of the structures and processes of labour migration. An examination of these forces helps to explain both structural transformation and structural maintenance, by analyling how the agency of individuals and collectivities was enabled or constrained by the dfverse, historical, economic, social, cultural and poli tical contexts within which labour migration took place. An analysis of the various layers of social structure that developed within these diverse contexts provides a deeper understanding of the multiple forms of agency that resulted from the development of the labour migration system. The conceptuaiizations of class, race, ethnicity and gender developed along with the labou migration process in southem Afnca. These conceptuaiizations changed over time and contributed to agency that occurred at the surface level of social reproduction but also a-the deeper level of societal transfomation. Acknowiedgements 1wodd like to thank my advisors, Dr. JOAM Jaffe, Dr. Blair Rutherford, and Dr. Murray Knuttila for their thoughtfiil comments and suggestions- 1 especially appreciated their patience in assisting me through this process. 1 wodd like to acknowledge the Faculty of Graduaîe Studies for the financial assistance it provided to me through scholarships. The staff of interlibrary loans provided gracious assistance in retrieving much of the materiais 1used in my thesis. The persona1 book collections of Dr. Blair Rutherford and George Manz helped me immensely and I wodd like to extend rny thanks to them for the loan of key matenals. Dr. Rutherford provided valuable advice on sources for investigating this thesis topic. Without this advice the conclusions would have been much more lirnited. 1would also like to achowledge the people of southern Afnca who triumphed over seemingly insumiountable odds to transfomi the oppressive social systems that existed in the region Their courage inspires me. Table of Contents Page Table of Contents Plates Chronology Chapter 1 Introduction - Confluence 1.1 Tniutaries - An Argument for Structuration Theory 1.2 Diversions - The Role of Capital 1-3 Watersheds - Gender, Ethnicity and Race 1.4 Convergence 1.5 Methodology Chapter 2 Setting the Course - Theories on Labour Migration 2.1 Navigating the Market - Neoclassical Theories 2.2 Diverting the Flows of Labour - Stmcturalist Theories 2.3 Convergence - Structuration Theory 2.4 hothe MainStream - Gender and Migration 2.5 Summary Chapter 3 Swept Away - Capital adthe Expansion of Labour Migration 59 3.1 Overview of Capitaiisî Deveiopment 3.2 The Rishg Tide of Colonial Capital 3 -2.1 -10 Amencan 3 -2.2 The Chamber of Mines 3.3 The Ernergence of AfWaner Capitai 3.4 Capitai and the Structures of Labour Migration 3.4.1 Anchors and Moorings - Reserves and Bantustans 3.4-2 Regulating the Flow - Infiux and Efflux of Africans 3 -4.3 Beyond Boundaries - Foreign Labour 3.5 Summary Chapter 4 Still Waters - Ethnicity, Race and Migration 4.1 Retum to the Source - The Origios of Race adEthnicity 4.2 Tidal Waves - The Flood of European Migration 4.3 Resevoirs of Identity - Manufactwhg Tni 4.4 Entering the Flow - Oppomuiities and Choices 4.5 Coalescence and Divergence - Race, Ethicity and Class 4.6 Summary Chapter 5 Currents of Continuity, Tides of Change - Gender and Migration 4.1 Hamessing the Power of Women's Labour 4.2 Stemming the Tide of Women's Migration 5.3 S- Chapter 6 Conclusion 6.1 Resolving the Legacies of Labour Migration Appendix A - Methodologid Issues and Oppominities for Further Research 184 Appendix B - Glossmy of Terms 189 Srellenboscti a Guod Hope From: Lapping, B., Apartheid: A History. London: Grafion. 1986. From: Lapping, B., Apartheid: A History. London: Grafion Books. 1986. South Africa at the close of the twentieth century. WESTERN CAPE PatElizPef h viii Chronology of South Africa's history Adapted fiom Sean 07toole 1 200 blyIron Age communities resident in what is now South Afnca 1 1 1652 meDutch East India Company establishes a settlement. 1 1 1800-30 The Mfecane consolidated power of associated Nguni speakers under the leaders hi^ of Shaka Period of Afncan ex~ansionisrn. 1 1820 (En masse arriva1 of British settlers in the eastern Cape. 1 1837-1854 Great Trek of 10,000 Afkhner settlers fiom the Cape Colony. 1838 DeBattle of Blood River where MEkanes defeated the Zulus, killing cver 1),000 and breaking the power of the united Zuiu annies. 1866 Discovery of diamonds at KUnberly* 1879 The Zulus defeat the British for the last time at the battle of Isandlwanda. 1886 Gold discovered on the Main Reef on the western outskirts of present day Johannesburg- 1899 Anglo-Boer war begins. Boers invade British South Af?ica. Britain responds with an army twice the size of Wellingîon's at Waterloo. 1900-02 Boer commandos engage in guemLla warfare. Boer civilian 'sympathizers' are put into concentration camps. Over 20,000 women and children die- 1910 Creation of the Union of South Afiica 1 1912 AfEcans react to the Native Land Act and abolition of Mcanpolitical rights. The South AfEcan National Native Congress was bom. 1913 The Natives Land Act is passed curtailing the rights of Afncans to own land. 1922 White mineworkers strike. The state intervenes and over 200 people are killed. 1923 The Urban Areas Act is passed in order to limit the nurnber of Aficans living in urban areas. The &cm National Congress (ANC) is formed. 1948 The Nationalist Party cornes to power with the ascendancy of Waner ideology. 1955 Pass laws are exteuded to women. Over 20,000 women protest in the streets 1 (of~retoria Sophiatown, Johannesburg declared a whites-only area and 60,0001 Afncans evicted. 1958 The establishment of AfÎican 'independent' homelands by Verwoerd, the grand architect of apartheid. 1960 nie Sharpeville Massacre of 76 people who were demoostrating against state- kequired sanction for urban residence. The ANC is banned. 1964 ANC leaders, including Nelson Mandela, are sentenced to life in prison for 1986 U.S. Congress passes the Anti-Apartheid Act. Sanctions follow. 1984-1 994 De facto civil war in most black townships. Many politicaily-motivated burders and massacres. 1994 /First ever non-racial democratic election. The ANC, under the leadership of plson Mandela, comes to power- ix Source: http:/Iwww.the core~ius.edu.s~andow/post~sa/sac~n~htmI Chapter 1 Introduction - Confluence South Afnca is a nation bounded by water. From the Limpopo, Orange and Vaal Rivers in the north to the oceans on the southem tip of the Af?ican continent, people have traversed the watery currents to and f?om South Mca. Since before recorded history people have migrateci, searching for military conquest, converts to Christianity, weaith, work or a haven fiom the ravages of war and poverty. The confluence of these peoples as classes, ethnicities, races and genders contributed to the complexity of the economic, political and social interests that directed the flow of migrant labour in South Afnca. This diversity is manifested in theoften competing interests over labour that across space and time came together or into conflict. These interests converged fiom the deeply layered social relations where race, gender and class-consciousness emerged fiom beneath the powerful currents of economic, political and social control of labour by capital and the state. The convergence of these forces produced social divisions and alliances that were not homogenous by class, race or gender and contributed to the development and enforcement of state policy on labour migration in South Africa. Although labor migration is not unique to southem Africa, the region is characterized by a system of forced and coerced labour that under colonialism lasted for over five hundred years. Beginning with the slave trade, colonial powers saw the advantage of harnessing African labour. Colonial, and later state powen, adopted masures such as taxation and land expropriation to force Anicans into the monetary system.