i Running head: RELIGION, PSYCHOLOGY, AND SUFFERING Dealing with Suffering: A Comparison of Religious and Psychological Perspectives By Emily Pimpinella B.A., Alfred University, 2005 M.S., Antioch University New England, 2008 DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Psychology in the Department of Clinical Psychology of Antioch University New England, 2011 Keene, New Hampshire RELIGION AND SUFFERING ii DISSERTATION COMMITTEE PAGE The undersigned have examined the dissertation entitled: DEALING WITH SUFFERING: A COMPARISON OF RELIGIOUS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES presented on March 10, 2011 by Emily Pimpinella Candidate for the degree of Doctor of Psychology and hereby certify that it is accepted*. Dissertation Committee Chairperson: Victor Pantesco, EdD Dissertation Committee members: Barbara Belcher ‐Timme, PsyD David Junno, PsyD Accepted by the Department of Clinical Psychology Chairperson Kathi A. Borden, PhD on 3/10/11 * Signatures are on file with the Registrar’s Office at Antioch University New England. RELIGION AND SUFFERING iii Table of Contents Abstract.........................................................................................................................................1 Rationale and Background.......................................................................................................2 Definition of Terms..................................................................................................................4 Religion...............................................................................................................................4 Suffering .............................................................................................................................4 Goals ........................................................................................................................................5 Method ..........................................................................................................................................7 Paradigm ..................................................................................................................................7 Epistemology ......................................................................................................................7 Social constructionism.............................................................................................................8 Exploration of the Material......................................................................................................11 Religion and Psychology ..............................................................................................................12 Religion and the General Population .......................................................................................12 Motivation for following a religion ....................................................................................13 The deficiency view.......................................................................................................14 The social perspective....................................................................................................15 The fulfillment perspective............................................................................................15 Religion and Health .................................................................................................................17 Treatment of Religion in the Field of Psychology...................................................................22 Religion and substance abuse treatment .............................................................................23 Mindfulness and psychology ..............................................................................................25 Multicultural Counseling Competencies (MCC)................................................................27 Psychologists’ beliefs..........................................................................................................28 Psychological Theories’ Responses to Religion......................................................................29 Psychodynamic Theory.......................................................................................................30 Brief history ...................................................................................................................30 Religion in psychodynamic theory ................................................................................30 Existential Theory...............................................................................................................36 Brief history ...................................................................................................................36 Religion in existential theory.........................................................................................36 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) ................................................................................41 Brief history ...................................................................................................................41 Religion and CBT ..........................................................................................................41 Summary: Religion in the Field of Psychology.......................................................................45 Suffering .......................................................................................................................................45 Religion and Suffering..............................................................................................................46 Christianity....................................................................................................................................48 Prevalence of Christianity........................................................................................................48 Brief overview of Christianity ............................................................................................48 Jesus ...............................................................................................................................48 Teachings of Christianity...............................................................................................50 Sects of Christianity.......................................................................................................51 Suffering in Christianity ..........................................................................................................52 The suffering of God......................................................................................................52 RELIGION AND SUFFERING iv The suffering of humans ................................................................................................55 The Saints.......................................................................................................................60 Solutions to Suffering .........................................................................................................63 Faith in God, God’s love, and Jesus ..............................................................................63 Suffering with God ........................................................................................................64 Immersing oneself in the religious community .............................................................65 Conquering sin...............................................................................................................65 The eternal reward of heaven and the kingdom of God.................................................67 Summary.............................................................................................................................68 Islam..............................................................................................................................................69 Prevalence of Islam..................................................................................................................69 Brief overview of the central ideas in Islam .......................................................................70 Muhammad ....................................................................................................................70 Overview of beliefs........................................................................................................71 Branches of Islam ..........................................................................................................71 Suffering in Islam ...............................................................................................................71 Jihad ...............................................................................................................................72 Martyrdom stories accepted in all branches of Islam ....................................................74 Martyrdom for Sunnis....................................................................................................75 Martyrdom in Shiism .....................................................................................................75 Sufi martyrs....................................................................................................................78 Suffering in Sufism beyond martyrdom ........................................................................78