TemaNord 2011:562 TemaNord Ved Stranden 18 DK-1061 Copenhagen K www.norden.org Parental leave, childcare and gender Parental leave, childcare and gender equality in the Nordic countries equality in the Nordic countries The Nordic countries are often seen as pioneers in the area of gender equality. It is true that the position of women in Nordic societies is generally stronger than in the rest of the world. There is an explicit drive in most – or perhaps all – areas of society to promote and strengthen equality between women and men. In recent years, some significant changes have occurred on the family front, where men now assume a greater share of childcare, household work and other tasks that used to be primarily women’s domain. Occasionally, we hear questions in the context of public debate as to whether the investments we have made to ensure equal opportunities, rights and obligations for women and men have in fact occurred at the expense of children. This concerns particularly the expansion of child- care and the system of shared parental leave. This book addresses some of these questions through an overview of political and policy developments in Nordic parental leave and childcare. In addition, the book descri- bes research on the situation of Nordic children and their wellbeing as viewed through international comparisons. This book is the outcome of a joint-Nordic project coor- dinated by editors Guðný Björk Eydal and Ingólfur V. Gíslason. Its other contributors are Berit Brandth, Ann-Zofie Duvander, Johanna Lammi-Taskula and Tine Rostgaard. TemaNord 2011:562 ISBN 978-92-893-2278-2 TN2011562 omslag.indd 1 24-10-2011 08:38:39 Parental leave, childcare and gender equality in the Nordic countries Ingólfur V. Gíslason and Guðný Björk Eydal (eds.) TemaNord 2011:562 Parental leave, childcare and gender equality in the Nordic countries Ingólfur V. Gíslason and Guðný Björk Eydal (eds.) TemaNord 2011:562 ISBN 978-92-893-2278-2 © Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen 2011 Print: Arco Grafisk A/S Copies: 800 Cover photo: Image Select Printed in Denmark This publication has been published with financial support by the Nordic Council of Minis- ters. But the contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views, policies or recommendations of the Nordic Council of Ministers. Nordic co-operation Nordic cooperation is one of the world’s most extensive forms of regional collaboration, involving Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Åland. Nordic cooperation has firm traditions in politics, the economy, and culture. It plays an important role in European and international collaboration, and aims at creating a strong Nordic community in a strong Europe. Nordic cooperation seeks to safeguard Nordic and regional interests and principles in the global community. Common Nordic values help the region solidify its position as one of the world’s most innovative and competitive. Nordic Council of Ministers Ved Stranden 18 DK-1061 København K Phone (+45) 3396 0200 Fax (+45) 3396 0202 www.norden.org Content Preface ................................................................................................................................................ 7 About the authors ........................................................................................................................... 9 Foreword ........................................................................................................................................ 11 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13 1. Parental leave ........................................................................................................................ 31 1.1 History of the development of the Nordic leave system ........................... 33 1.2 The leave system in 2010 .................................................................................... 34 1.3 Patterns of leave use .............................................................................................. 46 1.4 What factors influence the use of parental leave? ...................................... 52 1.5 Discussion and summary ..................................................................................... 59 References .............................................................................................................................. 61 2. Day-care schemes and cash-for-care at home ........................................................... 65 2.1 ECEC services ........................................................................................................... 67 2.2 Cash grants for care ............................................................................................... 88 2.3 Conclusion: the relevance of childcare policies for the Nordic welfare model .......................................................................................................... 98 References ............................................................................................................................ 102 3. Family policies and the best interest of children .................................................... 109 3.1 Children’s wellbeing now and in the future ................................................ 112 3.2 The significance of the first years of life for a child’s development.... 114 3.3 Parental leave and the best interest of children ........................................ 116 3.4 Fathers ...................................................................................................................... 125 3.5 Kindergartens and the best interest of children ........................................ 128 3.6 How early should children start kindergarten? ......................................... 133 3.7 How long should a kindergarten day be? ..................................................... 136 3.8 Summary/conclusion .......................................................................................... 138 References ............................................................................................................................ 140 4. Toward a Nordic childcare policy – the political processes and agendas ..... 147 4.1 The role of political parties in policy-making ............................................. 148 4.2 Nordic policies: co-operation on childcare and gender equality policy ......................................................................................................................... 149 4.3 Underlying motives: the best interests of the child and parents’ labour market participation.............................................................................. 152 4.4 Nordic discourse: “Use it or lose it” or freedom of choice?.................... 158 4.5 Party politics and childcare policies in the Nordic countries ............... 160 4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 170 References ............................................................................................................................ 173 Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 179 Preface The Nordic countries are often seen as pioneers in the area of gender equality. It is true that the position of women in Nordic societies is gener- ally stronger than in the rest of the world. There is an explicit drive in most – or perhaps all – areas of society to promote and strengthen equali- ty between women and men. In recent years, some significant changes have occurred on the family front, where men now assume a greater share of childcare, household work and other tasks that used to be primarily women’s domain. Occasionally, we hear questions in the context of public debate as to whether the investments we have made to ensure equal opportunities, rights and obligations for women and men have in fact occurred at the expense of children. This concerns particularly the expansion of childcare and the system of shared parental leave. This book addresses some of these questions through an overview of political and policy developments in Nordic parental leave and childcare. In addition, the book describes research on the situation of Nordic chil- dren and their wellbeing as viewed through international comparisons. Pia Erson Head of Department Nordic Council of Ministers About the authors Johanna Lammi-Taskula is a special researcher and head of unit at Fin- land’s National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL). Her research fo- cuses on balancing family and working life from a gender equality per- spective. She is particularly interested in the effects of family policy on gender equality and welfare in everyday life. Berit Brandth is Professor of Sociology in the Department of Sociology and Political Science at the Norwegian University of Science and Technol- ogy (NTNU) in Trondheim. Her research interests focus on the interface between family, work and care policy, with a particular emphasis on fa- thers and parental leave. The gender perspective is an important aspect in all of her publications, including the book “Fleksible fedre” (“Flexible fa- thers”) (Universitetsforlaget 2003), which she co-edited with Elin Kvande. Ann-Zofie Duvander is Associate Professor of Sociology at the Demog- raphy Unit of Stockholm