GeoJournal https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-018-9906-z (0123456789().,-volV)(0123456789().,-volV) Fortress conservation, wildlife legislation and the Baka Pygmies of southeast Cameroon Ngambouk Vitalis Pemunta Ó The Author(s) 2018 Abstract The indigenous Baka Pygmies of south- approach to conservation that recognizes the entan- east Cameroon depend mainly on environmental glement of ‘multispecies assemblages’ and respects incomes for their livelihoods, usually hunting and indigenous land rights. gathering and the sustainable use of their ecological systems. They are at the verge of profound political, Keywords Indigenous conservation Á Sustainable socioeconomic, and environmental transformations development Á Forestry regulation Á Ecology of orchestrated by modern state laws regulating hunting hunting Á Multispecies assemblages Á Pygmies Á and international development actors and agencies Indigenous land rights Á Cameroon Á Socioeconomic whose development vision expressed through conser- livelihood vation often underlie a contradiction with their way of life. This ethnographic study aims to document the dynamics of the institution of the great hunting expedition among the Baka. An interplay between Introduction the overexploitation of forestry resources, the creation of protected areas (fortress conservation), the full Worldwide forest bearing communities are under huge protection of certain classes of large mammals, the use political, economic, ecological and social pressures as of specific tools forbidden by existing forestry legis- they confront modern state laws and international lation and the ruthless behaviour of ‘eco-guards’ have development actors and agencies whose development led to changes in the organization of the great hunting paradigm often underlie a contradiction between their expedition. To better address the socio-cultural way of life–usually hunting and gathering and the aspects of biodiversity conservation and consequently sustainable use of their physical environment (Pyyha¨la¨ strengthen the legislation regulating the wildlife sector 2012; Pemunta 2013; Ndameau 2001; Lueong 2017; in the country, conservation stakeholders must be Rupp 2003). Emboldened by the recommendations of conscious of the multiple entanglements between various international conferences including among human and other life forms and the ecology of others the United Nations Conference on Environment hunting. This suggests the need for a rights-based and Development (1992) and the Fourth World Parks Congress (2003), Cameroon increased its number of protected areas to 21 (Pemunta and Mbu-Arrey 2013; & N. V. Pemunta ( ) Pemunta 2013). This expansion of the number of Centre for Concurrences in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies, Linnaeus University, 351 95 Va¨xjo¨, Sweden protected areas engendered the eviction, displace- e-mail: [email protected] ment, conflicts, and widespread multiple human rights 123 GeoJournal violations from armed guards/forest protection force culture), socioeconomic wellbeing and livelihood. (locally called ‘eco-guards’) on the indigenous Baka The Pygmy’s great hunting expedition aims to hunt people of southeast Cameroon (Pemunta 2014; for ritual animals and the gathering of forest and non- Ndameau 2001:217) whose socioeconomic livelihood forest products for socio-cultural purposes—particu- revolves mainly around hunting and gathering. They larly for the celebration of certain rites. It is at the became ‘‘Forest people without a Forest’’ (Lueong heart of ritual practices among the people—it is 2017:2; Rupp 2003), or ‘‘virtual citizens’’ (Pemunta intertwined with masculinity, personhood and gen- 2013, 2014). It further curtailed the availability of dered ethnic identity. The ‘‘big game hunt’’ (maka)is game that constitutes more than 50% of their source of embedded in ritual ceremonies. The elephant is protein (Robinson and Bennet 2000) and a central considered the acme of game animals among the element in their ritual practices. Estimates have it that Baka pygmies and as Joiris (1996:258) concedes: local people in the Congo Basin consume on average ‘‘There is a rich symbolism associated with, as the 100 g per day of protein (Wilkie and Carpenter 1999; Baka say, ‘‘this really enormous beast’’’’. This spear- cf Ichikawa 2006:5). Fortress conservation1 undermi- hunt ceremony targeting elephants takes place during nes nature protection, uproots local communities from the rainy season. It implies the covering of long their socioeconomic livelihood systems and woefully distances in the forest (ibid). The aim of some rites fails to protect flora and fauna (Ndameau 2001:217; are to locate and attract game, the designation of the Kashwan 2017; Pemunta 2013). A spike in the hunter charged with making the kill, while others poaching of elephants, gorillas, and chimps has been facilitate tracking and/or serve as thanks-giving observed in protected areas (Bushell and Eagles 2007; ceremonies to game spirits. A game ceremony is Stiles 2011; Kashwan 2017). There is, therefore, a sequential involving preparatory rites, the hunting of paradox between the logic of conservation and the the beast and after the kill (expiation). These rituals survival of indigenous peoples. In other words, are associated among others with the jeng‘ı (rite of dominant development models are at variance with passage) and Be´ka rites (conferring secret society conventional modes of production and livelihood— membership). They are complementary and reinforce including hunting, herding, fishing and gathering each other. What makes the great hunting expedition (Pyyha¨la¨ 2012:12; Lueong 2017; Pemunta 2013). of particular interest is that it involves most animal Can hunting be effectively managed to conserve species classified by Cameroonian forestry law as biological populations while meeting human needs? forbidden (class A). The series of tribal ritual How has the Cameroon government’s implementation activities mentioned supra are witnessing changes of its conservation policy (as manifested through its that negatively affect the survival, identity and principles and rules) deprived the Baka people, in a culture of the Baka Pygmies. These transformations way that runs counter to their local vision and aims? are mainly orchestrated by exogenous forces engaged How are the Baka Pygmies adjusting to the new in energy generation, the exploitation and conserva- economic, political and social dispensation that pro- tion of forest resources as well as restrictions imposed hibits entry into the forest, the hunting of certain by Cameroon’s forestry legislation that fail to discern animal species as well as hydroelectric power and the multispecies assemblages in which human and conservation projects that displace them? other life forms are entangled as well as the ecology This paper aims to analyze various mechanisms of of hunting among the Baka. adaptation of the Baka’s great hunting expedition to Below follows first, the theoretical and method- changes affecting their physical environment and ological framework informing the qualitative data threatening their culture (the loss of forest myths and collection process for this study. Secondly, is a presentation of the Baka as ‘virtual citizens’ whose 1 Contrary to fortress conservation which often involves the use ancestral way of life continues to deteriorate because of state violence to achieve the goal of biodiversity conservation, of their displacement and uprootedness in contempo- community based conservation—entails engaging local com- rary southeast Cameroon. The third section deals with munities in conservation so as to mitigate conflict by providing the legal context regulating hunting in Cameroon and them management responsibility and compensation to offset restricted access to land and natural resources (Karlsson 2015; its impact on the religious and economic life of the Vedeld et al. 2016:183; Adam and Hutton 2007). Baka. The fourth section describes the great hunting 123 GeoJournal expedition ceremony as well as the conflict between environment (Adam and Hutton 2007; Peet and Watts conservation and this ritual ceremony. This is pre- 2004a; Escobar 1998; Alcorn 1993).2 ceded by the conclusion to the study. The renaissance of traditional ecological knowl- edge and customary management practices to conser- vation issues has spurred a spirited and contentious Theoretical framework and method of study debate. Although traditionally Western ideas of con- servation have been blended with indigenous knowl- Today the Baka Pygmies of southeast Cameroon find edge and management ideas to come up with themselves in a new socioeconomic and political multicultural frameworks of action, as reflected in environment characterized by the intrusion of State concepts such as co-management, the debate about laws regulating hunting, development projects—hy- whether (or not) indigenous peoples are actually droelectric and mining, sedentarization and conserva- conservationists (Adam and Hutton 2007; Adams tion projects that prohibit access into the forest and 2004; Alcorn 1993) rages on. One group of scholars confine them to particular spaces. A political economy (Alvard 1998; Smith and Wishnie 2000) argue that framework is appropriate for analyzing the impact of actions such as resource rotation, food taboos, these external forces on the Baka and for capturing restrains on harvest limits, are results of optimal changes over time in the institution of the great harvesting and not conscious conservation initiatives. hunting expedition.