Beyond cultural nationalism: Murakami Haruki and an emergent Japanese cosmopolitan identity Tomoki Wakatsuki A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Social Sciences Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences Acknowledgements I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Paul Jones, without whom I could not have completed a doctoral thesis. His extensive knowledge of cultural studies, cultural sociology and media studies inspired me throughout this journey. I am grateful for his professional guidance and for saving me from drowning in a sea of uncertainties. I am indebted to my co-supervisor Dr. Claudia Tazreiter whose encouraging and constructive feedback was instrumental in the development of my thesis. Her suggestion of cosmopolitanism invigorated my exploration of contemporary Japanese society. I would also like to thank my editor Dr. Diana Barnes for helping me to produce the final draft. My sincere thanks go to Maria Zueva at the Learning Centre of the University of New South Wales who supported my writing. I would like to thank the School of Sociology at the University of New South Wales for providing me this opportunity. The university’s excellent library system allowed me to complete my studies from Japan. The Graduate Research School gave generous support to my research while I was overseas. My deepest appreciation goes to Kyung-Ae Han for sharing the long journey with me, while we were both in Sydney and later when we were in Seoul and Tokyo. Thank you for reading countless drafts and providing valuable feedback. Our discussion of Haruki Murakami and Korean diasporas gave me the courage to take on a path that was unthinkable when the project began. Thanks to my parents for providing me the education and experience that enabled me to pursue this research. My interest in cultural identity goes back to my early childhood when our family lived in Fiji. My fascination with diasporic identity was instilled by my mother. Her war-time experience as a Japanese girl born in Sakhalin traumatized her throughout her life. I am grateful to my dear friends, Russell, Michael, Atsuko and Tae Yong for always being there for me. And last, but not least, I am indebted to my husband Noboru for his passion. His confidence in me made it possible for me to believe in myself. Thank you for letting my Murakami Haruki books dominate our bookshelf, although, as you like to boast, you have never read Haruki. Abstract This thesis explores the question of contemporary Japanese cultural identity. Pertaining to the position taken by Cultural Studies that identity is not an essentially fixed entity, it argues for the prospect of cosmopolitan identities as an alternatively self-determined form of autonomous identity. The argument is supported by analyses of emerging cultural public spheres and the everyday cosmopolitanism the thesis finds in the work of contemporary Japanese writer Haruki Murakami. It is my concern that the prevailing norm of Japanese cultural identity is diminished by its dependence on cultural nationalism. Japanese society in general is under the influence of such a popular discourse concerning ‘Japaneseness’ known as Nihonjinron which is imbued with the myth of “one nation, one people” as its central tenet. This thesis interrogates and critiques this discourse for its intrinsic ethnocentrism and its capacity for facilitating the social exclusion of those who do not conform to it. The development of a cultural public sphere in Japan not only resists such cultural nationalism, but also indicates emergent everyday cosmopolitanism. The “Haruki Murakami phenomenon” is analysed at length by examining its contrasting domestic and international reception in order to demonstrate how its everyday cosmopolitanism could help redefine the concept of Japaneseness. Instead of isolating Japan and its cultural identity, Murakami embodies the possibility of an alternative approach which would position Japan within the inter-connectedness celebrated in the cosmopolitan imaginary. The prospect for cosmopolitan identities is further explored through the examination of recent Korean diaspora writers in Japan and elsewhere. The diasporic status of Korean writers offer coherent example of struggles with belonging and identity for those without nation. The cases of Murakami and the Korean diasporic writers represent a critical enquiry into multiple belongings and multiple identities that fulfil the cosmopolitan promise of the current globalisation process. The thesis concludes that there is an alternative approach to the redefining of Japanese cultural identity by establishing a broader perspective for belonging beyond conventional boundaries. Table of Contents Note: ................................................................................................................................. 3 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1. Nihonjinron discourse and its conception of ‘Japaneseness’ Nihonjinron and the development of cultural nationalism ...................................................... 10 Nihonjinron and Japanese cultural identity ............................................................................. 17 Lost identity: Westernization and Japanization ...................................................................... 22 Ideology and nationalism of Nihonjinron: myth of Japaneseness .......................................... 26 Chapter 2. Japanese Cultural Studies: a new critical resource? Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 31 The development of Cultural Studies in Japan ....................................................................... 32 Limits and possibilities of Cultural Studies ............................................................................ 35 Cultural Studies in the Japanese academic system ................................................................. 38 Cultural Typhoon: connecting academic sphere and public sphere ........................................ 44 Chapter 3. Resisting cultural nationalism in the cultural public sphere Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 54 Global public sphere and cosmopolitan engagement .............................................................. 56 Contemplating the Japanese cultural public sphere ................................................................ 61 Noda’s challenge and the cultural public sphere .................................................................... 66 Chapter 4. Cosmopolitanism and Japan Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 78 Beck’s second modernity and cosmopolitanization: Is contemporary Japan a cosmopolitan society? ................................................................................................................................... 82 Everyday cosmopolitanism and the prospect of cosmopolitan identities ............................... 96 Belonging as cosmopolitans ................................................................................................. 107 Chapter 5. Diasporic identities: Shifting towards cosmopolitan identities Introduction: Is blood thicker than water? Blood, belonging and identity ........................... 112 1 Kaneshiro Kazuki’s quest for identity without belonging .................................................... 117 From diasporic to cosmopolitan notions of identity: Kaneshiro Kazuki and Chang-rae Lee 129 Kaneshiro and Lee: diasporas at home ................................................................................. 133 Towards cosmopolitan identities .......................................................................................... 141 Chapter 6. The Haruki phenomenon and the question of Japaneseness Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 145 The Haruki phenomenon....................................................................................................... 147 The question of Japaneseness: the cultural representation and literary evaluation of Murakami .............................................................................................................................................. 159 Murakami’s magical realism and world literature ................................................................ 169 Chapter 7. Towards a cosmopolitan imaginary Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 181 The Barcelona speech ........................................................................................................... 182 Belonging in the cosmopolitan imaginary ............................................................................ 188 The Jerusalem Speech ........................................................................................................... 190 Murakami’s cosmopolitan turn: to be engaged ..................................................................... 195 Of Eggs and Walls ...............................................................................................................