UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO SAN DIEGO STATE UNIVERSITY CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SAN MARCOS The Invisibility of Multiracial Students: An Emerging Majority by 2050 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership by Gina Acosta Potter Committee in charge: University of California, San Diego Professor Carolyn Huie Hofstetter, Chair San Diego State University Professor Margaret Basom Professor Valerie Ooka Pang 2009 Copyright Gina Acosta Potter, 2009 All rights reserved. The Dissertation of Gina Acosta Potter is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: Chair University of California, San Diego San Diego State University California State University, San Marcos 2009 iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my family who represent a multitude of culturally rich races and languages, having immigrated from six countries to have the privilege of calling America home. To my biracial husband, Paul, who is half Okinawan and half White of English descent, thank you for your endless love and support. I appreciate the steadfast fortitude you have extended to me during the doctoral program and the precious time you bequeathed to our young children. This work is also devoted to the joys of my life – my beautiful multiracial children, Kainoa and Tatiana Potter, who represent a harmonious blend of three races, Filipino, Okinawan, and White. As your mother, I love you dearly and am so proud of you. You represent the new and exciting face of America. I want to thank my Filipina mother, Eleanor Acosta Teagle and White father of English and Irish descent, Thomas Edwin Teagle for having the courage to join in an interracial marriage in 1970, just three years after the Supreme Court struck down wide spread anti-miscegenation state laws that required a separation of races in marriage. My parents not only shared the taboo of mixed race love at a time of racial tension in America, but they also raised three biracial, or in Filipino terms “mestiza” daughters, Jami, Tomi, and myself. How fortunate were my sisters and I to have two parents who overcame strict racial limitations and instilled within us the good fortune to be of not one but of two distinct and diverse races. iv Mom, thank you for always being there for me and for the many sacrifices you have made in your life to ensure that I could go to college and achieve so many dreams. You are my strength and my inspiration. Dad, thank you for the hard work ethic you instilled in me. You embedded within me a relentless drive to always be my best. My parents are also both great educators in San Diego and I am obliged to them for instilling within me the resolve to know that every child can and should succeed. Jami and Tomi, you are my sisters and my best friends. Thank you for proudly living the life of a “mestiza” alongside me. To my grandparents on both our Filipino and White sides of the family, you have been the steadfast foundation of our family. Grandma Ramona Magbanua Acosta Reinaldo, Grandpa Alejo Agabin Acosta, Grandpa Lucio Ranada Reinaldo, Grandma Evelyn Teagle Fousek, Grandpa Edwin Teagle, and Grandpa Alex Fousek were an integral part of the children, grandchildren, and great grandchildren within our family. They were heroic individuals who overcame incredible life feats such as serving in World War II, immigrating to America on a ship as a war bride, living in poverty, becoming successful athletes and businessmen, and surviving the Great Depression. They lived not in the present but in the future and embraced diversity throughout their life times. To my extended family members representing the Areolas, both Thompson families, the many Teagles, and the Bakers (Randall, Candyse, Mersadie, and Amanda) – how blessed I am to have wonderful relatives. The diverse and multifaceted aspects of my family have united to make me who I am today. My family is my strength, my courage, and my success. v TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION .......................................................................................................iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................xv LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................... xviii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................... xix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... xxi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... xxi VITA ................................................................................................................. xxiii ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION ............................................................. xxiv CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1 Purpose of Study .................................................................................................. 4 Statement of the Problem ..................................................................................... 6 Researcher Biases ............................................................................................... 7 Summary of Literature ........................................................................................ 10 vi Accountability Movement: Multiracial Students Hidden ..................................... 14 Clarification of Terms .......................................................................................... 17 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................... 20 Organization of Study ......................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................. 22 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........................................................................ 22 Chapter Organization ......................................................................................... 22 Multiracial: A Growing Demographic Trend in America ..................................... 22 Multiracial America Since the 17 th Century ......................................................... 25 Racial Identity Development a Theoretical Framework ...................................... 28 Racial Classification ........................................................................................... 38 The Multiracial Student in an Era of Educational Accountability ......................... 49 Academic Achievement of Multiracial Students .................................................. 52 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................. 57 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 57 vii Chapter Organization ......................................................................................... 57 The Qualitative Researcher ................................................................................ 57 Research Design and Case Study ...................................................................... 60 Research Question and Sub Questions ............................................................. 60 Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................ 61 Interviews ................................................................................................. 62 Documents ............................................................................................... 64 Data Recording ........................................................................................ 65 Transcripts ............................................................................................... 66 Participants ......................................................................................................... 66 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 67 Participant Observation............................................................................ 72 Validity ..................................................................................................... 73 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................ 75 Closing ............................................................................................................... 76 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................... 78 ANALYSIS OF DATA ......................................................................................... 78 Overview of Chapter Organization ...................................................................... 78 viii Group Interviews ................................................................................................ 79 Organization of Data Analysis ............................................................................ 83 Federal Public Policy .......................................................................................... 88 United States Department