University of Montana ScholarWorks at University of Montana Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers Graduate School 1993 Cultural-historical geography of Tibetan immigration to Missoula Montana Christopher Alan MateÌ? The University of Montana Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd Let us know how access to this document benefits ou.y Recommended Citation MateÌ?, Christopher Alan, "Cultural-historical geography of Tibetan immigration to Missoula Montana" (1993). Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers. 5343. https://scholarworks.umt.edu/etd/5343 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at ScholarWorks at University of Montana. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Student Theses, Dissertations, & Professional Papers by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at University of Montana. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 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MAUCOPY.PM4 A CULTURAL-HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF TIBETAN IMMIGRATION TO MISSOULA, MONTANA By Christopher Alan Mate B.S., The University of Montana, 1979 Presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts The University of Montana 1993 Approved by , Board of Examiners Dean, Graduate School ( Date UMI Number: EP40807 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages-, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI' UMI EP40807 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQ uest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code est ProQ uest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 - 1346 Mate, Christopher A., M.A., September 1993 Geography A Cultural-Historical Geography of Tibetan Immigration to Missoula, Montana (ix and 74 pp.) Director: Jeffrey A. Gritzner^~^ What are the relationships between the act of Tibetan resettlement and the persistence, loss, or modification of specific cultural traits? Why do cultural traits persist, decrease, or increase in intensity from one setting to the next? This study examines the relationships among cultural traits, physical settings, and cross-cultural interactions, and their effects upon cultural persistence. Elements of culture to be considered include: governmental relations, religion, livelihood systems, language, and formal education. The principal physical factors considered are geology, topography, climate, and ecology. Three geographical settings are examined: historical Tibet from which the Tibetans emigrated; the resettlement communities in India and Nepal, where they resided prior to their arrival in Missoula, Montana; and Missoula itself. Cross-cultural interactions address the modification of selected cultural traits as the Tibetans adapted to the differing conditions of resettlement communities in India and Nepal, and later, Montana. The thesis characterizes Tibetan environmental systems and culture prior to 1950, thereby establishing a benchmark for the analysis of cultural change. This thesis then explores the social implications of the changes identified. The research included review of pertinent literature, interviews, and a questionnaire. Initial contact with the immigrants was made possible through involvement in the Tibetan-U.S. Project, Montana. The gathering of information was conducted between October, 1992 and June, 1993. Of the eighteen Tibetans currently residing in Missoula, eleven actively participated in interviews, and fifteen responded to the questionnaire. The study indicates that the process of resettlement from Tibet to India and Nepal, and ultimately to Missoula has modified Tibetan culture traits in the following manner: The value attached to governmental relations had increased in India and Nepal with a slight decreases in the United States. The value assigned to religion remained constantly high in India and Nepal with a slight to moderate decrease in Missoula. Livelihood systems have been progressively modified throughout the resettlement process. Language retention remained constantly high in India and Nepal with a slight decrease in Missoula. Formal education increased in value in India and Nepal, and has remained relatively constant in the United States. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................. ii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .............................. v LIST OF TABLES ...................................... vi GLOSSARY OF TERMS . .. ........................... vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................. ix INTRODUCTION ........................................ 1 Chapter 1. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: TIBET . ............... 3 Geographical Position ..................... 3 Geology .................................. 4 Topography ................................ 6 C l i m a t e .................. .............. 9 E c o l o g y .................................. 11 Analysis and Summary of Physical Environment as a Factor of Culture . 15 2 . CULTURAL TRAITS: TIBET ...................... 17 Government and Religion: Before 1950 . 17 Livelihood Systems ...................... 28 Pastoralists .......................... 29 Agriculturalists ...................... 30 Religious Communities .................. 31 Merchants and Specialty Occupations . 33 L a n g u a g e .................................. 36 Formal Education .......................... 38 F a m i l y .................................... 38 i i i Analysis and Summary of Cultural Traits . 41 3. TIBETAN RESETTLEMENT IN INDIA AND NEPAL .... 42 Physical Environment ...................... 47 C l i m a t e ................................ 50 Cultural Traits .......................... 50 Government and Religion ................ 50 Livelihood Systems .................... 53 Formal Education and Language .......... 55 F a m i l y ................................ 55 Analysis to Resettlement-Generated Cultural Trait Changes ................ 57 4. RESETTLEMENT TO MISSOULA, MONTANA ............ 61 Physical Traits .......................... 63 Cultural Traits .......................... 63 Analysis to Resettlement-Generated Cultural Trait Changes ................ 64 Conclusions .............................. 68 APPENDIX ............................................ 70 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................. 72 i v ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Historic Tibet, A . D . 822-1951................... 5 2. Physical Map of T i b e t ......................... 8 3. Birth Place and Resettlement of Tibetan I m m i g r a n t s ................................ 49 4. Importance of Cultural Trait in Tibet ......... 67 5. Cultural Trait Changes throughout the Resettlement Process ...................... 67 v TABLES Table Page 1. Birth Date, Place and Age, of Tibetan Immigrants................................. 48 2. Residence in India and Nepal of Tibetan Immigrants.................................... 51 3. Livelihoods of the Families and Individual Tibetan Immigrants ............................ 54 4. Formal Education and Marital Status of Tibetan I m m i g r a n t s .................... 56 v i GLOSSARY OF TERMS Geographical: Name Cited Tibetan Name Lake Quinghai H u ........ Koko Nor Rivers Brahmaputra .... Tamjyak-Kamba (Tsangpo) Huang ............ Ta-Ho-Pa Indus ............ Sing Chin Kamba Mekong .......... Dza-chu Salween .......... Nag-chu Sutlej . ........ Lang Chin Kamba Yangtze .......... Dri-chu Religious: B o n : Pre-Tibetan Buddhist shamanistic religion in Tibet. Geluk-pa sect: Fourth Tibetan Buddhist sect founded by Tsong Khapa, a Tibetan scholar in the fourteenth century. It gained the support of the Mongolian rulers in the sixteenth century and consolidated political control over Tibet in the seventeenth century under the leadership of the Vth Dalai Lama. Emphasis focussed upon sutra studies with the tantra studies reserved for only the most advanced religious scholars and lamas. Kangyu-pa sect: Second Tibetan Buddhist sect founded by Marpa, a Tibetan scholar, known as the translator in the eleventh century A.D. Emphasis was on both the tantra and sutra teachings and practices. Nying-pa sect: First Tibetan Buddhist sect founded by Padma Sambhava, an Indian Buddhist scholar in the eighth century A.D. Emphasis focussed upon tantra teachings and practices. Om-Mani-Padme-Hum: The English translation is, "Hail the Jewel in the Lotus Flower." It is the sacred, six- syllable Avalokitesvara mantra often chanted in Tibet. Sakya-pa sect: Third Tibetan Buddhist sect founded by Atisha, an Indian Buddhist scholar in the eleventh century A.D. Emphasis was on both tantra and sutra teachings and practices. It was the first sect to be supported politically and financially by the Mongolian rulers of China.