The University of Maine DigitalCommons@UMaine Electronic Theses and Dissertations Fogler Library Spring 3-26-2020 Human-Giraffe Interactions: Characterizing Poaching and Use of Parts as a Threat to Giraffe in Northern Kenya Kirstie Ruppert University of Maine, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd Part of the Environmental Studies Commons, and the Social Psychology Commons Recommended Citation Ruppert, Kirstie, "Human-Giraffe Interactions: Characterizing Poaching and Use of Parts as a Threat to Giraffe in Northern Kenya" (2020). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 3177. https://digitalcommons.library.umaine.edu/etd/3177 This Open-Access Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UMaine. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UMaine. For more information, please contact [email protected]. HUMAN-GIRAFFE INTERACTIONS: CHARACTERIZING POACHING AND USE OF PARTS AS A THREAT TO GIRAFFE IN NORTHERN KENYA By Kirstie A. Ruppert B.S. University of California, Los Angeles, 2012 M.A. Miami University, 2015 A DISSERTATION Summitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Ecology & Environmental Sciences The Graduate School University of Maine May 2020 Advisory Committee: Dr. Carly Sponarski, Assistant Professor of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Conservation Biology, Advisor Dr. Jenny Glikman, Associate Director at San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research Dr. Sandra De Urioste-Stone, Associate Professor of Nature-based Tourism Dr. Caroline Noblet, Associate Professor of Economics Dr. Laura Rickard, Associate Professor of Communication and Journalism © 2020 Kirstie Ruppert ii HUMAN-GIRAFFE INTERACTIONS: CHARACTERIZING POACHING AND USE OF PARTS AS A THREAT TO GIRAFFE IN NORTHERN KENYA By Kirstie A. Ruppert Dissertation Advisor: Dr. Carly Sponarski An Abstract of the Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (in Ecology & Environmental Sciences) May 2020 Giraffe (Giraffe spp.) are iconic wildlife species to Africa, yet relatively little conservation funding and research have been directed at protection of giraffe in the wild. A growing number of national governments and conservation organiZations are implementing management strategies to address the threats that giraffe face. To inform these plans, there is a need for social science that examines the human pressures associated with decline of giraffe populations, including poaching and the use of giraffe parts. As the large majority of reticulated giraffe (Giraffa reticulata) range occurs outside formally protected areas, conservation plans must be made with pastoralist communities and other actors in northern Kenya where the land is shared between people, their livestock, and wildlife. The research presented in this dissertation was conducted as part of a community-based program focused on reticulated giraffe, called the Twiga Walinzi Initiative (“Giraffe Guards” in Swahili), and represents the first quantitative study on the human dimensions of giraffe conservation. Goals of the research project were to examine key cognitions to human-giraffe interactions (i.e. attitudes, beliefs, perceptions), assess relationships between certain cognitions within areas that adopt a community-based conservation approach, and understand the extent and drivers of giraffe meat and part usage. Face-to-face interviews were conducted at two study sites over survey periods in 2016/17 (n=579) and 2019 (n=680). Results from these studies provide insights to how pastoralist communities view and act toward local giraffe. Factors that significantly influenced support for giraffe conservation differed between study sites, suggesting that local context is important to shaping human-giraffe interactions (Chapter 2). For instance, perceived benefits had stronger influence on normative belief in communities more recently connected with wildlife-based tourism. The linkages between perceived benefits, attitudes, and behaviors were further explored by assessing the relationships between these concepts within a community-based conservation setting (Chapter 3). Findings suggest a positive association between perceived benefits and attitudes toward giraffe, but there was less evidence that perceptions of wildlife-related benefits influenced use of giraffe meat/parts. As human behavior is of central interest to conservation, we also assessed levels of giraffe meat consumption (Chapter 4) and determinants of intention to consume giraffe meat (Chapter 5). SpecialiZed questioning techniques were utiliZed to estimate prevalence of giraffe meat consumption preceding the two surveys. Estimated prevalence of giraffe meat consumption declined after establishment of the Twiga Walinzi. Perceived behavioral control had stronger relative influence than attitudes and subjective norms on future intention to consume giraffe meat. Collectively, these research findings are relevant for applied giraffe conservation efforts and provide a framework for understanding human-giraffe interactions and associated threats in diverse global settings. ii DEDICATION To my grandmother, Joyce Ruppert, for taking me to the library iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are numerous people and groups that made this dissertation possible, and I am so grateful for the many ways they enabled or enriched my experience as a doctoral student. Thank you to the community leadership and members of Namunyak, Kirimon, Ol Dnyiro, and Naibunga Community Conservancies, as well as KMC, Sagumai, and P&D group ranches for permission to conduct this project and their participation in the research studies. Learning from the relationships formed has been invaluable and will continue to shape how I work as a conservationist. To the Twiga Walinzi—Symon Masiaine, Lexson Larpei, Jesus Lekalgitele, Ruth Lekupanai, Johnson Lekushan, Joseph Lemirgishan, Daniel Lenaipa, Jonathan Lenyakipiro, Sebastian Lerapayo, Maxwell Lororua, Unitah Sam, Masenge Lenalakiti, Lekuran Lemingani, and Ranis Lesipiti—I am so fortunate to do this work alongside you, and learn together about the ways that people and wildlife can coexist. I simply could not have earned this degree without you. To the SDZG giraffe team—I am so grateful to Jenna Stacy-Dawes, for your partnership and teamwork, and Dave O’Connor, for your commitment to giraffe and inclusion of people in their protection. The many partnerships that support the Twiga Walinzi Initiative deserve acknowledgement. To Giraffe Conservation Foundation, thank you for your tireless work to secure a future for giraffe. I also thank the Kenya Wildlife Service, Northern Rangelands Trust, Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust (especially Tom Letiwa), Loisaba Conservancy (particularly Tom Silvester, Hannah Campbell, Torrie McCleoud, Mama Rose, Papa Kaptain, and Daniel Yiankere), The Nature Conservancy, Sarara Camp (Katie & Jeremy Bastard, and all there that have welcomed me as family), and Lewa Wildlife Conservancy. The Twiga Walinzi Initiative is made possible by the generosity of the Leiden Foundation, Alan and Victoria iv Peacock, Nan and Gery Katona, and other private donors to San Diego Zoo Global, as well as through funding generated from visitors to the San Diego Zoo and Safari Park. To my co-advisors—Drs. Carly Sponarski and Jenny Glikman—thank you for your mentorship through every step of this journey. The example you’ve set not only while working with me, but with each other, has taught me a great deal about meaningful collaboration. Carly, I am so grateful for your willingness to have me as your lab’s first student, for the new skills and ways of thinking I’ve gained, and for the empathy, flexibility, and kindness you’ve extended as I balanced work and school. Jenny, thank you for believing in me (at times more than I did myself), and for the unwavering encouragement. To my committee members—Drs. Laura Rickard, Sandra De-Urioste Stone, and Caroline Noblet—thank you the time and support you have given during my studies. Through our meetings, the comprehensive exam process, and classes, I appreciate the opportunities to learn and think critically about how people relate to the environment. I am so thankful to have a home with the Community Engagement team at the San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research. Every member of this group inspires me with their dedication to this planet and compassion for its people. Maggie Reinbold, I have so much admiration for your optimism and leadership, and I would not be where I am without your support in my personal and professional development. Dr. EliZabeth Davis, thank you for your R tutorials, perspectives on conservation, and frequent comedic relief. And of course, Jenny again, for your friendship and grace during the ups and down, and inspiring me in your constant pursuit of knowledge. v To my colleagues at San Diego Zoo Global, particularly Drs. Nicholas Pilfold, Megan Owen, and Nadine Lamberski, I am so fortunate to be part of such a dynamic group that works so hard to protect wildlife and support communities. My experiences with Project Dragonfly at Miami University, Ohio have shaped how I consider communities in conservation and been a source of much learning, especially my times with Amelie Sterling and Dr. Jill Korach. I am so appreciative to the U Maine Department of Wildlife Fisheries, and Conservation