Olympic Tourism Mike Weed AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA First edition 2008 Copyright © 2008, Mike Weed. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 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Alternatively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-7506-8161-2 For information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications visit our web site at books.elsevier.com Printed and bound in Hungary 08091010987654321 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org Contents List of Tables vii List of Figures ix Preface xi Acknowledgements xix Part 1 1 1 Sport, tourism and the Olympic Games 3 2 Who are Olympic tourists? 23 3 The detail of Olympic tourism 47 4 Leveraging Olympic tourism 69 5 Planning for Olympic tourism 97 Part 2 117 6 The Winter Olympic Games 119 7 The Games of the XXVII Olympiad in Sydney (2000) 137 by Graham Brown 8 The Games of the XXVIII Olympiad in Athens (2004) 153 9 The Games of the XXIX Olympiad in Beijing (2008) 171 10 The Games of the XXX Olympiad in London (2012) 187 Afterword 207 References 211 Index 227 v ••••• List of Tables 1.1 Potential Features of each Sports Tourism Type 11 3.1 The impacts and nature of event-affected people during the Olympic Games period 54 3.2 The impacts and nature of further event-affected people in the pre-/post-Games period 59 6.1 Hosts of the Winter Olympic Games 121 6.2 Respective costs of Summer and Winter Games 124 6.3 Winners and losers from the Salt Lake City Winter Games 130 6.4 Turin 2006 – lessons regarding impact and benefits for tourism 131 7.1 Members of the Tourism Olympic Forum 142 7.2 Sub-committees of the Tourism Olympic Forum 143 7.3 Tourism Olympic Forum Strategic Framework 144 7.4 Australian Tourist Commission Olympic Strategies 147 8.1 SWOT analysis of Greek tourism in 2001 159 8.2 Scenarios of the impact of Athens 2004 on Greece international arrivals (1998–2011) 162 9.1 Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) cultural dimensions 179 9.2 Comparison of cultural dimension scores 180 10.1 Nations and regions – leadership, strategy and priorities 192 vii ••••• List of Figures 1.1 Model of Sports Tourism Types 9 2.1 Sports Tourism Demand Continuum 36 2.2 Sports Tourism Participation Model – Stage one 38 2.3 Sports Tourism Participation Model 42 3.1 Tourism flows and other movements during the period of the Olympic Games 49 3.2 Tourism flows and other movements in the pre-, during and post-Games periods 57 3.3 The tourism system 62 4.1 Model for Olympic tourism leveraging 71 5.1 Olympic Tourism Policy Rings 99 5.2 Sport and tourism policy communities: Heartland and Periphery 112 5.3 The Olympic policy community 113 9.1 Illustration of cultural dimension scores 180 10.1 The structure for the delivery of London 2012 190 ix ••••• Preface As a subject for academic analysis, tourism has reached a stage of relative maturity (Downward and Mearman, 2004). A cur- sory review of journals serving the subject area reveals a number that have been in existence for over 25 years (e.g., Tourism Man- agement, Annals of Tourism Research), with the Journal of Travel Research publishing its 45th annual volume in 2007. Similarly, the range of journals reveals the diversity of issues considered (e.g., Tourism Geographies, Tourism Economics, Journal of Sustain- able Tourism, Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing). Downward (2005:308) describes the study of tourism as characterized by ‘an emphasis on management and resource allocation’ but ‘within an eclectic approach to disciplinary context’. Similarly, research on the Olympics and the Olympic Move- ment has burgeoned in the last 20 years. Academic research has focussed on Olympic politics (e.g., Espy, 1979; Hill, 1996) the impacts of the Olympic Games (Lenskyj, 2002; Preuss, 2004), and the history and ideology of the Olympics and the Olympic Movement (Girginov and Parry, 2004; Toohey and Veal, 1999). In addition, there has been a keen journalistic and popular cul- ture interest in the machinations of the Olympic Movement (e.g., Jennings, 2000; Simson and Jennings, 1992) and Olympic impacts (Lee, 2006; Payne, 2005), with the latter sustaining, almost single- handedly, an industry in the prediction of economic impacts (see, e.g., IVC, 2002; PricewaterhouseCoopers, 2005). However, despite the significant growth in both consultancy reports and academic research on the economic impacts of the Olympic Games, there is little published research that explores the extent and nature of Olympic tourism. With a general lack of research on Olympic tourism, it would seem sensible to turn to research in the areas of events manage- ment (e.g., Berridge, 2006; Masterman, 2004) and sports tourism xi ••••• Preface (e.g., Hinch and Higham, 2004; Weed and Bull, 2004), which are supported by the journals Event Management and Journal of Sport and Tourism, respectively. While much research in the former has tended to focus on the minutiae of events operations and man- agement (Wilson, 2006), research in the latter tends to be more wide-ranging and multi-disciplinary and, of course, has a clear tourism focus. Weed (2006a) conducted a systematic review and meta-evaluation of peer reviewed sports tourism research pub- lished between 2000 and 2004 inclusive in which 80 articles from 24 journals were reviewed. Of these articles, eight were explic- itly about Olympic-related tourism, whilst many more investi- gated tourism to mega- or major-events. Overall, 40 per cent of these sports tourism publications had an events focus. As such, it would seem that the academic sub-field of sports tourism pro- vides a useful starting point for an analysis of Olympic tourism, and much of the contextual content in the first two chapters of this book is drawn from research on the relationship between sport and tourism. This leads to a general comment on the approach taken throughout this book. It is perhaps possible to identify a con- tinuum of types of academic books. At one end of the scale is the text book, in which there is no attempt to generate new knowledge. Existing knowledge is simply presented in a way that is easily digestible for student learning. Examples of this type of book might be An Introduction to Leisure Studies (Bull, Hoose and Weed, 2003) and Understanding Sport: An Introduction to the Sociological and Cultural Analysis of Sport (Horne, Tomlinson and Whannel, 1999). At the other end of the scale are texts that have been written to both present and inform research, and that largely comprise new ideas developed from original research and approaches. Examples of such texts might be Sports Tourism: Participants, Policy and Providers (Weed and Bull, 2004) and Sport and Tourism: Globalization, Mobility and Authenticity (Higham and Hinch, forthcoming). In between are a range of other approaches, including those that might be seen as advocacy texts, arguing for the acceptance of a particular field of study or approach (e.g., Sport Tourism, Standeven and De Knop, 1999; Adventure Tourism: The New Frontier, Swarbrooke et al., 2003), and edited collections that present the views and perspectives of a range of different authors on a particular topic. Such edited collections might range from those that, like some text books, are fairly introductory in nature (e.g., Sport and Adventure Tourism, Hudson, 2003) to those that present a more advanced collection of readings (e.g., Sport Tourism Destinations, Higham, 2005; Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories, Gibson, 2006). This book takes a different approach again, and one that might be characterized as lying midway ••••• xii Preface between the text book and the research text. Given that there is little research on Olympic tourism per se, but that there is a great deal of research that might be seen as foundational to the study of Olympic tourism in the areas of tourism, Olympic studies and sports tourism, this book seeks to apply both cutting-edge and long-standing research from these three areas to develop an understanding of Olympic tourism. As such, many of the models and frameworks presented throughout this research have been adapted from previous research and applied to the Olympic tourism context. In this respect, while this book does not present new research, it does attempt to develop knowledge through the application of existing frameworks to a new context.