humanities Article A Question of Life and Death: The Aesopic Animal Fables on Why Not to Kill Tua Korhonen Department of World Cultures, Ancient Languages and Cultures, University of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 40 A, 00014 Helsingin yliopisto, Finland; tua.korhonen@helsinki.fi; Tel.: +358-2941-22-159 Academic Editor: Joela Jacobs Received: 12 March 2017; Accepted: 3 May 2017; Published: 13 May 2017 Abstract: This article deals with Greek animal fables, traditionally attributed to a former slave, Aesop, who lived during the sixth century BCE. As a genre, the Aesopic fables, or the Aesopica, has had a significant impact on the Western fable tradition and modern Western children’s literature. The Aesopica owes much to the Mesopotamian fables and has parallels in other Near Eastern cultures. Modern research has concentrated on tracing the oriental roots of the fable tradition and the dating of the different parts of the Aesopica, as well as defining the fable as a genre. The traditional reading of fables has, however, excluded animals qua animals, supposing that fables are mainly allegories of the human condition. The moral of the story (included in the epimythia or promythia) certainly guides one to read the stories anthropocentrically, but the original fables did not necessarily include this positioning element. Many fables address the situation when a prey animal, like a lamb, negotiates with a predator animal, like a wolf, by giving reasons why she should not be killed. In this article, I will concentrate on these fables and analyse them from the point of view of their structure and content. Comparing these fables with some animal similes in Homer’s Iliad, I suggest that these fables deal not only with the ethical problem of ‘might makes right’ as a human condition, but also the broader philosophical question of killing other living creatures and the problem of cruelty. Keywords: fable; Aesopic fables; Greek fable; antagonistic fables The so-called animal turn has encouraged classicists to read Graeco-Roman literature from the point of view of Human-Animal Studies, that is, to focus on human-animal interactions and the agency of animals.1 However, although animals have many eminent functions in ancient literature—as symbols and as metaphors and similes—animals figured very seldom as protagonists or proper characters. There are no stories in which a non-human animal is depicted as voicing its (imagined) experience, perceptions, and life—like animals do in modern animal ‘biographies’, such as Anna Sewell’s Black Beauty (1877). Yet, there seems to be one well-known exception: in Apuleius’ The Golden Ass, which had a shorter Greek equivalent mistakenly attributed to the satirist Lucian (both versions are based on a Greek story), the protagonist is a donkey, which experiences various adventures and abuse by different owners.2 However, the donkey is, in fact, a human named Lucius, who has been transformed into a donkey by the agency of a Thessalian witch. The aim of the story is not to make the audience feel sympathy for the ill-treated donkey, but to identify with the human, Lucius, whose body has been metamorphosed into that of a donkey. The reader is constantly reminded that the donkey is, in fact, a human being. 1 On Human-Animal Studies, see, for example, (Marvin and McHugh 2014). 2 Stefan Tilg argues that the original Greek story of this metamorphosis into a donkey is from the first century CE (Tilg 2014, pp. 2–3). However, the story itself could be earlier. Humanities 2017, 6, 29; doi:10.3390/h6020029 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2017, 6, 29 2 of 16 Besides the minor genre of the parodic animal epic,3 only animal fables used animals as prominent characters in antiquity. However, animals in animal fables are depicted as humanised, that is, they talk, reason, and act like humans—although they are seldom so humanised as in the fable where a dog wishes to sue a sheep for stealing a loaf of bread (Phaedrus 1.17). The main function of different species of animals in fables seems to be to mirror fixed human character types—foxes are cunning and sheep represent timidity. Animal fables are read as reflecting human experience, presenting it in an allegorical way by projecting human relations onto an artificially created animal world, often with fake interspecies relationships. In other words, fables picture social relationships and interactions between diverse species in an unnatural realm—the animal kingdom—which mirrors the human world, as well as its social structures and hierarchies. Like nowadays, the Aesopic fables were sometimes interpreted to especially represent the voice of the oppressed (human) classes, like slaves, in antiquity. Both the legendary Aesop and the Roman fable writer Phaedrus were former slaves.4 Animal characters in animal fables are thus thought to be easily substituted by humans and their situation can be smoothly transferred to the human world. This kind of allegorised reading of fables was already dominant in antiquity.5 Consequently, it is no wonder that modern animal sensitive6 scholars have lately criticised the Aesopic animal fables because ancient fables (in their view) seem to guide the reader to interpret the story only as an allegory. Fables are not supposed to convey animal life, with the result that the animals themselves—as animals—are erased.7 Therefore, although animal fables are nearly the only literary genre in antiquity where animals are the protagonists, actual ‘real’ animals seem to be absent. However, some classicists, like Jeremy B. Lefkowitz(2014), have recently at least posed the question of the possible ‘animality’ (animals qua animals, not substitutes for humans) of the Aesopic animal fables. By seeing affinities with stories in ancient natural histories, Lefkowitz argues that fables sometimes depict animals not merely symbolically, but also reveal a zoological interest in animal behaviour.8 The first fable in Greek literature is from the eighth-century BCE, namely ‘The Hawk and the Nightingale’, which Hesiod included in his Works and Days (Hesiod 2007, pp. 202–12). The fable is told to a specific addressee, Hesiod’s brother Perses, as a moral lesson. A hawk has caught a nightingale and answers its cries of distress: And now I will tell a fable (ainos) to kings who themselves too have understanding. This is how the hawk addressed the colourful-necked nightingale, carrying her high up among the clouds, grasping her with its claws, while she wept piteously, pierced by the curved claws; he said to her forcefully, ‘Silly bird, why are you crying out? One far superior to you is holding you. You are going wherever I shall carry you, even if you are a singer; I shall make you my dinner if I wish, or I shall let you go. Stupid he who would wish to contend against those stronger than he is: for he is deprived of the victory, and suffers pains in addition to his humiliations.’ So spoke the swift-flying hawk, the long-winged bird. As for you, Perses [ . ] (Trans. Glenn W. Most) Usually, this fable has been interpreted simply to expose the ideology of ‘might makes right’. In Lefkowitz’s view, the fable also functions to show that animals ‘behave in a way which is not 3 The only extant animal epic from antiquity is The Battle of Frogs and Mice (Batrachomyomachia). On animal and bird epics, see (West 2003, pp. 229–37). 4 (Lefkowitz 2014, pp. 18–20). 5 On ancient theories of fable and its functions, see (Dijk 1997, pp. 38–78). Dijk mentions persuasive, didactic, comical, and aetiological functions of fables (Dijk 1997, pp. 38–78). 6 By the notion of ‘animal sensitive’, I mean not only an awareness of ethical issues concerning animals, but simply the awareness of animals, in addition to their function and role in human cultures. 7 (Simons 2002, p. 119; Teittinen 2015, pp. 152–53). 8 Naama Harel discusses the Aesopic fables in her essay as translations and also deals with such classic modern fables as George Orwell’s Animal Farm (Harel 2009). Humanities 2017, 6, 29 3 of 16 appropriate to humans’. Lefkowitz combines this fable with the famous passage in the same work, Works and Days, in which Zeus is said to have only given justice (dike¯) to humans and not to birds, fish and land animals, and this is shown by the fact that animals eat each other (Works and Days 274–80).9 The moral of the story is thus that decent human beings are not allowed to behave like the hawk in this fable. However, there are many unsolved problems with the interpretation of this fable. One way of explaining is that the nightingale as a singer possibly represents the epic poet Hesiod himself, so that the fable is an affirmation of the power of song that triumphs despite all. Be this as it may, ‘The Hawk and the Nightingale’ was well known in antiquity and functioned as a model for later fabulists with different emphases.10 What is notable about this fable is that the predator would seem to be justifying his behaviour to his helpless prey. Why would this be necessary if ‘might is right’? There are similar fables in which the victim begs for mercy, even giving reasons why (s)he should not be killed. Animal fables often depict conflict or antagonistic situations between species, a motif – as well as a dialogic form – that goes back to Mesopotamian fables, to which the Graeco-Roman tradition owed a great deal.11 Additionally, Homeric, especially Iliadic, animal similes depict conflict situations.12 Therefore, it might be fruitful to compare antagonistic (or agonistic) animal fables with antagonistic Homeric similes – without, however, making any suggestions about the mutual influence between these two genres.