On Becoming and Being a Musician: A Mixed Methods Study of Musicianship in Children and Adults Dawn Rose Thesis submitted to the University of London for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London May 2016 1 Statement of Originality I certify that the work in this thesis is my own. Signed………………………………. (Dawn Rose) Dated…………… May 2016 2 Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the participating musicians, parents, teachers and children who have so generously given their time to make this study possible. My genuine gratitude to you all for inspiring me and for inviting me to your homes, schools, hearts and minds. Thank you for helping me, and I hope I have honoured your generosity by providing research that will help others in turn. Similarly, I am grateful to the institution of Goldsmiths, University of London for providing me with the opportunity to learn. However, it is the people there who made it such a positive experience. In particular I would like to acknowledge and thank Professor Lauren Stewart who opened the doors for me and helped me believe in myself by showing me unswerving support from the very start and also Maurice Douglas whose kindness and smiles made everything seem possible. To Pamela Heaton, whose enormous heart, depth of insight and sharp intellect have inspired me from the first lecture I saw her give to the final draft of this thesis, and for her friendship throughout the rollercoaster ride in between. You have shown me how to see into worlds in ways I barely imagined possible for me, and you have taught me to think with discipline and purpose. Your endless patience, curiosity and kindness have provided light in the darkness and shown me the way through. Thank you for your support and belief in me. To Alice Jones Bartoli, your incredible blend of brilliance, strength and grace have been inspirational to me and helped me to aim to be the very best I can be too. The standards you set ensure I will always rigorously consider everything I write and do. Your personal and intellectual generosity makes me believe that, because of this, I can hold my own in any situation. I cannot thank you enough for giving this priceless gift to me, and for your friendship and support throughout. Thanks also for your patience and support to all my wonderful friends, especially Denise Bailey, Nigel & Mary Bishop, Juliet Dawson, Helen Etherington, Zoë Gilmore, the Hackett family, Simon Irwin, Walter Jaquiss, Catherine Kelley, Jo Kewn, Chris Lee, KaFai Leung, Lucy McKenzie, Christelle Page and family, the Rogers family, Iona Tanguy, Ayesha Taylor, Vicky Williamson, Diane Young, Leon van Noorden. To my lovely godsons Callum, Conor, Rémi, Dion and Aiden, thank you for giving me perspective and hope. Sincere thanks also to my family, Heidi & Wade, Wendi & Family, and Mum and Stewart for all your support whilst I’ve been studying. A special extra 3 thanks to my Mum, Jill Hilton for helping to give her daughters the education she believed would ensure a better future for us. Finally, to Jason Lim for his integrity and immense thoughtfulness, incredible capacity to listen and abundance of loving care. Thank you for riding the roller coaster with me, because even though you had to shut your eyes sometimes, you never let go! Dedication One of my greatest joys in life has been teaching drums and helping people develop and explore their musicianship. All of my students have inspired and delighted me on their learning journeys and this work is dedicated to their futures. One student in particular, who became the most wonderful friend, made it possible for me to study and have a home and a future. My dear friend Dr. Dorothy France, without whom I would not have been able to even attempt to change my life, I know you would have been proud of me and I dedicate this work to you with love. 4 Thesis Abstract Studies comparing musically trained and untrained children and adults provide evidence of structural, functional and behavioural changes associated with experience-specific adaptation within the cortical and subcortical sensory-motor neural networks. Researchers have suggested that changes associated with musical learning may transfer to near domains (e.g. fine motor ability) and/or far domains, such as general intelligence. However, few studies have considered the concomitant development of a range of cognitive, behavioural and socio-emotional measures reflecting emerging musicianship. No other study has attempted to situate these findings within the context of adult musicians’ experience. Two studies are presented here; firstly a quantitative longitudinal quasi-experimental investigation of multiple measures of musicianship. 19 children received only statutory school music group lessons over one academic year, and another 19 children received additional extracurricular musical instrument lessons for the first time during that year. A battery of tests included measures of aptitude, intelligence, memory, motor abilities and parental and teacher reports of socio-emotional behaviours. Results showed musical training enhanced hand-eye coordination and fluid intelligence, replicating and extending previous studies. The second study is a qualitative grounded theory investigation of a range of 28 adult musicians reflecting contemporary working musicians in the U.K. This includes nonconformist and popular musicians as well as conductors and music producers. They reflected upon what it is to be a musician, and what qualities they were aware their experiences had brought to their lives. A musicians’ model of musicianship emerged which challenges assumptions relating to the concept of transfer effects. The data generates new hypotheses that musical learning supports and encourages flexible cognitive and behavioural skills and creativity that are further enhanced by the concomitant experience of nonverbal communications encompassing music and socialisation. 5 Table of Contents Statement of Originality ............................................................................................... 2 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 3 Dedication ...................................................................................................................... 4 Thesis Abstract .............................................................................................................. 5 Table of Contents .......................................................................................................... 6 List of Figures .............................................................................................................. 11 List of Tables ............................................................................................................... 13 Chapter One – Aims, Objectives and Background .......................................... 17 1.1 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 17 1.2 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 18 1.3 Aims and Objectives ............................................................................................. 18 1.4 Background ........................................................................................................... 20 1.4.1 What is a musician, or musicianship? .............................................................. 20 1.4.2 Measuring musical aptitude or ability? ............................................................ 22 1.5 Building a Bio-ecological Model of the Affect of Musical Learning ................. 24 1.5.1 Background ...................................................................................................... 24 1.5.2 Updating The ‘Talent’ Debate ......................................................................... 25 1.5.3 Environment and Opportunity ......................................................................... 27 1.5.4 Structural and Functional Neural Adaptation .................................................. 27 1.6 Intelligence, Working Memory and the Potential Connection with Musical Learning ....................................................................................................................... 31 1.7 The Concept of Transfer Effects.......................................................................... 34 1.8 Issues in Music Education Research ................................................................... 39 1.9 Overarching Rationale and Aims of the Study .................................................. 41 Chapter Two – Methods and Measures for the Child Study .......................... 43 2.1 Abstract .................................................................................................................. 43 2.2 Measures ................................................................................................................ 43 2.2.1 Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI; Wechsler, 1999) ........... 43 2.2.2 Gordon’s Primary Measure of Musical Audiation (PMMA; Gordon, 1986). .. 45 2.2.3 Children’s Memory Scale (CMS; Cohen, 1997). ............................................. 47 2.2.4 Movement Assessment Battery for Children, 2nd Edition (MABC-2; Henderson, Sugden & Barnett, 2007) ....................................................................... 49 6 2.2.5 The