LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES OF DISPLACED INDEPENDENT ERITREAN YOUTHS IN CAIRO: EXAMINING AGENCY AND VULNERABILITY AMANDA ELIZABETH SIINO A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO JULY 2018 © AMANDA ELIZABETH SIINO, 2018 Abstract Eritrea is one of the largest refugee producing countries, as many exit to escape arduous National Service (Amnesty International 2015). Egypt is an important transit country for Eritreans, with the majority settling in Cairo. Based on fieldwork with displaced independent Eritrean youths in Cairo from May-August 2017, this thesis applies the livelihoods framework to independent displaced youths to study their agentic capabilities, amidst vulnerability. They are primarily able to negotiate their livelihoods through their housemates, often those they meet ‘en route’. Furthermore, their housemates are frequently their only source of support, regardless of their ability to provide adequate support. Despite their experiences of vulnerability, mainly determined by their security context, youths enact their agency in managing social, institutional, and financial resources. Gender was the predominant marker of identity that influenced their livelihood strategies. This thesis critically examines the key livelihoods issues facing displaced youths and makes practical and theoretical recommendations. ii Land Acknowledgement I recognize that many Indigenous nations have longstanding relationships with the territories upon which York University campuses are located that precede the establishment of York University. York University acknowledges its presence on the traditional territory of many Indigenous Nations. The area known as Tkaronto has been cared taken by the Anishinabek Nation, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, the Huron- Wendat, and the Métis. It is now home to many Indigenous Peoples. I acknowledge the current treaty holders, the Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation. This territory is subject of the Dish With One Spoon Wampum Belt Covenant, an agreement to peaceably share and care for the Great Lakes region. iii Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the help and contributions of many important people. I would like to thank the Development Studies program, and the Faculty of Graduate Studies for the opportunity to do this research and for providing the guidance, resources, and financial support to complete it. I am grateful to the Ontario Graduate Scholarship and the Social Sciences Humanities Research Council of Canada for funding this project. The Center for Refugee Studies was a key part of expanding my knowledge and networks in the field and fuelling many of the thoughts that went into this thesis. Thank you to Saint Andrew’s Refugee Services in Cairo for allowing me to do my internship and complete this research independently, with a special thank you to my colleagues for their kindness and friendship. To my friends in Cairo, thank you for the moral support and laughs amidst the challenges of field work. I would also like to thank my fellow Development Studies students, especially Rita and Alex, for listening to ideas, translating things at the last minute, and the encouragement. I would like to sincerely thank my parents for all of their support and patience . To my siblings, thank you for listening to me, being an outside eye on this thesis, and making sure I make sense to people other than myself. My supervisory committee has been invaluable to me throughout this process. Though I encountered many challenges, their encouragement and patience was vital. I would like to thank my supervisor Christina Clark-Kazak for agreeing to stay on with the project despite living in different cities and managing several logistical difficulties — this project would not have come to be without your insights and critical feedback. To my co- supervisor, Merouan Mekouar, thank you for the continued support with this thesis, and with post-thesis career planning. To Miguel Gonzalez, thank you so very much for being so flexible in agreeing to join as my third reader late in the process. I would like to sincerely thank my team of research assistants. This project would not have been possible without your contributions and our conversations. You are all such incredible young people, and I wish you all the very best. Most importantly, I would like to thank my participants, and the many people in the Eritrean community I met in Cairo who spoke with me and showed me nothing but kindness and hospitality. I am deeply grateful to them all for trusting me with their stories, and I sincerely hope that I will be able to help the cause of displaced independent Eritrean youths in some way through this work. This thesis is, above all, dedicated to them. With humility and gratitude, Amanda Elizabeth Siino iv Table of Contents ABSTRACT ii LAND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF DIAGRAMS ix LIST OF ACRONYMS x CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: INDEPENDENT ERITEAN YOUTHS IN CAIRO 1 CONTEXT: ERITREA AS “SENDING STATE” 3 Colonialism, Independence and Continued Tensions 3 ‘Motivating Factors’: Mandatory Military Service and Human Rights Abuses 8 CONTEXT: EGYPT AS “RECEIVING STATE” 14 Political and Economic Situation in Egypt 14 Displaced Persons in Egypt 15 CHAPTER 2: RELATION TO THE LITERATURE 19 LIVELIHOODS LITERATURE 19 INDEPENDENT DISPLACED YOUTHS LITERATURE 31 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: LIVELIHOOD STRATEGIES AND INDEPENDENT DISPLACED YOUTHS 37 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH PROCESS & METHODS 41 POSITIONALITY 43 POTENTIAL BIAS IN METHODOLOGY 52 ETHICS 56 RESEARCH ASSISTANTS 58 LOCATION AND DEMOGRAPHICS 64 INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 67 OBSERVATION 68 CHALLENGES 69 CHAPTER 4: SECURITY SITUATION 73 NEIGHBOURHOODS 73 Ard el Lewa 73 Ain Shams 81 6th of October 83 v Faisal 83 TRANSPORTATION 84 ASSAULTS AND POLICE 86 SECURITY AND DECISION MAKING 87 INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE: MARIAM 89 CHAPTER 5: ‘ROUTE’ TO CAIRO 92 INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE: LUWAM 92 ‘STANDARD ROUTE’ FROM ERITREA TO CAIRO 95 a) Experiences in Eritrea 96 b) Sudan 99 c) Expectations about Cairo 102 d) Smugglers/Traffickers 103 e) Arriving in Cairo 106 f) Social Linkages ‘en route’ 108 CHAPTER 6: LIVING SITUATION 111 SPATIAL 111 Moving 113 SOCIAL 114 1- Characteristics of Household Makeup: 114 a) Age: Terminology 114 b) Typology of Household Makeup 117 1- Youths Living with Youths: UCY living with UCY 118 2- Youths Living with Youths: UCY living with ‘Overage’ 122 3- Youths Living with ‘Adults’ 127 4- Youths Living with Older Siblings 128 5- Younger UCY, living with older UCY/ ‘aged-out’ UCY 130 2- Markers of Identity and the Household 131 a) Religion and the Household 132 b) Gender and the Household 137 NON-RECIPROCITY: SHAME & GUILT 141 HOMELESSNESS & UNSTABLE HOUSING 142 CHAPTER 7: INSTITUTIONAL INTERACTIONS: SUPPORT & SOCIAL NETWORKS 147 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 147 UNHCR 147 UNHCR Age Assessments 154 EDUCATION 161 CHAPTER 8: FINANCIAL SITUATION 163 EMPLOYMENT 163 Working Women: Working with ‘Madames’ 166 vi REMITTANCES 171 PRICE GOUGING 173 CHAPTER 9: CONCLUSIONS 176 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS 176 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS 177 BIBLIOGRAPHY 182 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 192 APPENDIX B: DEMOGRAPHICS OF PARTICIPANTS 195 APPENDIX C: ETHICS APPROVAL 198 APPENDIX D: ETHICS RATIONALE 200 APPENDIS E: RESEARCH ASSISTANT JOB DESCRIPTION 204 APPENDIX F: ARD EL LEWA SECURITY LETTER (ARABIC) 206 APPENDIX G: AL-DOSTOR ARTICLE TRANSLATION FROM ARABIC 207 vii LIST OF TABLES: Table 1: Location and Demographics of Youths Interviewed. 66 viii LIST OF DIAGRAMS Diagram 1: Map of Location of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Egypt 16 Diagram 2: DFID’s sustainable livelihoods framework 23 Diagram 3: Application of Livelihoods Framework in this study 40 Diagram 4: Map of Cairo 64 Diagram 5: Map of Neighbourhoods of Participants (Approximate) 73 Diagram 6: Photo of Narrow Street in Boulaq al Douquor, close to Ard el Lewa 75 Diagram 7: Map of Main Points ‘en route’ from Eritrea to Cairo 94 ix LIST OF ACRONYMS BIA: Best Interest Assessment BID: Best Interest Determination EPLF: Eritrean People’s Liberation Front RSD: Refugee Status Determination StARS: Saint Andrew’s Refugee Services UCY: Unaccompanied Youths UNHCR: United Nations High Commission for Refugees UYBP: Unaccompanied Youth Bridging Program (at StARS) x Chapter 1: Introduction Eritrea is one of the largest refugee1 producing countries in the world with no ongoing conflict, but many exit to escape indefinite and arduous National Service (Amnesty International 2015). Many youths become ‘stuck’ in transit to Europe due to a lack of funds, dangerous conditions, or changing policies (Jacobsen et al. 2014). Though most literature on independent youths focuses on those who seek asylum in the Global North, they are a relatively small number compared to South-South migration (Huijmans 2015, 4) this research addresses this gap by focusing on Eritrean youths in Egypt. As Egypt is the closest country with Mediterranean shores to Eritrea, it is an important transit country where the majority settle in Cairo (Danielson, 2015, 13). Displaced independent Eritrean youths in Cairo are primarily able to negotiate their livelihoods through their housemates, principally others in the Eritrean community. Furthermore, their housemates are frequently their only source of support in Cairo, regardless of their ability to provide adequate support, be it financial, psychosocial, or