Université de Montréal The Politicization and Depoliticization of Ethnicity A Constructivist Approach to Power-sharing Alexandre W. Raffoul Maîtrise en Études Internationales Janvier 2017 Mémoire présenté en vue de l’obtention du grade de Maîtrise en Études Internationales. © Alexandre Raffoul, 2017 Résumé Depuis les années 1990, le partage du pouvoir est l’option favorisée pour la consolidation de la paix dans les sociétés multi-ethniques. Or, une importante littérature a remis en cause sa capacité à consolider la paix sur le long terme. Ce mémoire questionne l’approche de l’ethnicité, des institutions et des relations peuple-élites dans la théorie du partage du pouvoir. Il propose de la ré- approcher en se basant sur la théorie constructiviste de l’ethnicité, qui reconnaît la multiplicité et la relative fluidité des identités ethniques, sur une approche néo-institutionnaliste, qui étudie les interactions des institutions avec leur environnement, et en accordant une attention particulière au lien entre peuple et élites. Ce mémoire développe trois arguments principaux. 1–La politisation du clivage ethnique nuit au bon fonctionnement d’un système démocratique, menace la durabilité de la paix et transforme la nature de la violence. Le « succès » du partage du pouvoir peut donc être défini comme la dépolitisation de ce clivage. 2–La politisation du clivage ethnique n’est pas naturelle, mais résulte d’un processus dans lequel les institutions formelles et informelles ainsi que la violence jouent des rôles clés. 3–La dépolitisation du clivage ethnique est possible si des garanties pour représentation politique et la sécurité des catégories ethniques sont mises en place, et si des incitatifs pour la mobilisation d’identités non-ethniques sont apportés. Ces principes peuvent guider l’élaboration d’accords de partage du pouvoir. Ce mémoire théorique est complémenté par une étude de plausibilité qui se focalise sur le cas crucial du Burundi. i Abstract Since the 1990s, power-sharing has become the favoured option for peacebuilding in multi-ethnic societies. An important literature has however shed light on the limits of this approach and put into question its capacity to establish sustainable peace. This thesis questions three elements of power- sharing theory: its approach of ethnicity, institutions and its elite-bias. It proposes to approach power-sharing theory through the lenses of a constructivist theory of ethnicity, which acknowledges the multiplicity and limited fluidity of ethnic identities; a neo-institutionalist approach of institutions, which pays attention to the interaction of institutions with their environment; and in paying attention to citizen-elite linkages. Three main arguments are developed: 1-The politicization of the ethnic cleavage is problematic since it hinders the good functioning of a democratic system, threaten the sustainability of peace, and transform the nature of violence. “Success” of power-sharing is thus defined as the depoliticization of ethnicity. 2-The politicization of ethnicity is not natural but results from a process in which formal and informal institutions as well as violence pay a key-role. 3-The depoliticization of the ethnic cleavage is, at least theoretically, possible if sufficient guarantees for the political representation and the security of the groups are established, and incentives are provided for the mobilization of non-ethnic identities. These principles may guide the design of power-sharing systems. This “theory- proposing” thesis is complemented by a plausibility probe which focuses on the crucial case of Burundi. ii Table of Contents RESUME ................................................................................................................................................................ I ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................................... II LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................................ VII LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................................... VIII LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... IX ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................. X INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................ 1 A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH TO POWER-SHARING ........................................................................................ 1 A TOCQUEVILLIAN DEFINITION OF SUCCESS ....................................................................................................... 3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 6 ARGUMENTS .......................................................................................................................................................... 6 FOCUS .................................................................................................................................................................... 7 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER OVERVIEW ......................................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER 1: POWER-SHARING THEORY AND ITS CRITICS ............................................................. 11 CONSENSUS AND DEBATES ................................................................................................................................ 11 CONSOCIATIONALISM ............................................................................................................................................................. 13 CENTRIPETALISM .................................................................................................................................................................... 14 POWER-SHARING AS A TOOL FOR PEACEBUILDING .......................................................................................................... 16 THREE DEBATES IN POWER-SHARING THEORY ............................................................................................... 18 UNDERLYING CONCEPTIONS OF ETHNICITY ....................................................................................................................... 18 INSTITUTIONS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT ......................................................................................................................... 22 THE ELITE-CITIZEN LINKAGE ............................................................................................................................................... 26 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER 2: THEORY OF ETHNICITY ..................................................................................................... 28 DEFINING ETHNICITY ......................................................................................................................................... 29 GROUPIST DEFINITIONS OF ETHNICITY .............................................................................................................................. 30 INDIVIDUALISTIC DEFINITIONS OF ETHNICITY .................................................................................................................. 31 iii ETHNIC IDENTITY AND FILIAL TRANSMISSION ................................................................................................................. 34 THEORIZING CHANGE ........................................................................................................................................ 38 AMALGAMATION AND FRAGMENTATION OF ETHNIC GROUPS ....................................................................................... 38 THE FLUIDITY OF ETHNIC IDENTITIES ................................................................................................................................ 40 THE MULTIPLICITY OF ETHNIC IDENTITIES ....................................................................................................................... 41 ETHNIC AND NON-ETHNIC IDENTITIES IN INTERACTION: THE POLITICIZATION OF ETHNICITY ............................. 43 CONCEPTUALIZING ETHNIC CONFLICT .............................................................................................................. 44 CAUSES OF CONFLICT BETWEEN ETHNIC GROUPS ........................................................................................................... 45 PROBLEMATIZING CAUSAL APPROACHES OF ETHNIC CONFLICT ................................................................................... 47 A “TRIANGLE” CONCEPTUALIZATION OF ETHNIC CONFLICT .......................................................................................... 48 THE SPECIFICITY OF ETHNIC CONFLICT ............................................................................................................................