Marsh reclamation in the oil sands of Alberta: providing benchmarks and models of vegetation development by Marie-Claude Roy A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Department of RENEWABLE RESOURCES University of Alberta © Marie-Claude Roy, 2014 Abstract A key objective of the Alberta oil sands industry is to reclaim the post-mined landscape to “equivalent land capability” (Harris 2007). Vitt and Bhatti (2012) proposed a restoration framework for boreal disturbances. They suggested that to increase chances of achieving ecosystem equivalency and sustainability, created sites must have 1) species composition similar to natural reference sites, 2) species performance based on natural benchmarks, and 3) ecological processes similar to reference sites. To provide reclamation benchmarks to which created marshes of the Fort McMurray region can be compared and reclamation practices adjusted, my work follows the rationale developed by Vitt and Bhatti (2012). In Chapter One, I provided an introduction to the major paradigms of community ecology. In Chapter Two, I identified, described and compared environmental and plant assemblage patterns present in different types of created and natural marshes. In Chapter Three, I examined the degree to which the addition of peat-mineral mix (PM) to different types of oil sands process materials (OSPM) affects C. aquatilis performance. I also tested the effects of oil sands process water (OSPW) on C. aquatilis performance. In Chapter Four, I defined and compared natural and created marsh zone area variation over time and identified abiotic factors that influence the patterns observed. My results revealed that created and natural marshes were characterised by distinct environmental conditions and that the vegetation composition of some created sites was dissimilar to natural reference sites. The addition of PM to OSPM significantly increases C. aquatilis survival, below and aboveground biomass. The use of OSPW ii significantly reduced C. aquatilis belowground biomass and affected its physiological performance. Amending created marshes with PM may enhance plant performance but its effect at the community level remains to be tested. Unlike natural marshes the total areas of created marshes were dominated by stable submersed aquatic vegetation zone (SAVZ) in all years. Mean maximum temperature and annual total snow were identified as the simplest ways to predict SAVZ area within natural marshes for a given year. The ratio of marsh area to volume described SAVZ area variation and provided prescriptive guidance for construction of reclaimed marshes. iii À ma famille. Pour mon père qui a su me transmettre entre deux billots d’épinette, avec peu de mots, un peu de sa sagesse mais surtout son amour pour le bois. Pour ma mère qui, en s’assoyant dans l’escalier par les soirs d’été pour écouter la grive solitaire chanter, m’a transmise son adoration pour la nature. Pour mes deux grands frères, pour m’avoir « tapper la trail » et ébranché les sentiers à coups d’hachette et de bonheurs naïfs. Pour mes deux petites nièces et leurs petites joues roses, pour me donner une raison de croire en un avenir meilleur. Aux épinettes de Saint-Alfred qui m’ont vu grandir et m’ont offertes le hurlement des coyotes, le chant du merle, les chevreuils sous le pommier et les écureuils dans le grenier. A ceux et celles qui sont parties trop vite et qui ont planté au fond de mon de mon être, une pousse de vie. To Piaf, for never leaving my side, for your gentle soul full of joys whom reminds me that life is beautiful and simple. To Tamara, for believing in me and to always make the best adventure out of everything. iv Preface My thesis bridges the practice of ecological restoration with theoretical paradigms developed in community ecology. Thus, in Chapter One, I provide an introduction and synthesis of the major paradigms of community ecology including past and current accomplishments in this field. Using the oil sands of Alberta as a model, I identified how reclamation can provide a fruitful setting to test theories and hypotheses of community ecology. I also outlined my chapter objectives and identified how they contribute to the field of community ecology. To provide reclamation benchmarks to which created marshes of the Fort McMurray region can be compared and reclamation practices adjusted, my work followed the rationale developed by Vitt and Bhatti (2012): 1) Created sites must have species composition similar to natural references sites (Vitt and Bhatti 2012). In Chapter Two, I examined whether created marshes were characterised by environmental conditions and plant species composition that were similar to their natural analogues. I identifed, described and compared environmental and plant assemblage patterns present in different types of created (i.e. created-tailings, created-unamended, and created-peat-amended) and natural marshes. Environmental conditions (water and soil chemistry, and physical conditions), as well as plant community measures (richness, diversity, composition) were collected in 51 marshes of the Fort McMurray region. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to compare them, and differences in environmental and vegetation composition among marsh types were found. My results suggested that oil sands amendments (oil sands process water (OSPW) and oil sands process material (OSPM)) influence vegetation composition. Based on my results, the next logical step was to determine if and how OSPW and OSPM influence marsh vegetation performance. 2) Species performance in created sites must be based on natural benchmarks (Vitt and Bhatti 2012). A sedge community dominated by Carex aquatilis was identified by Raab and Bayley (2013) as a desirable late-succession community for the wet-meadow zone of oil v sands-created marshes. However, when compared to C. aquatilis growing in natural marshes, C.aquatilis performance was inhibited in oil sands created marshes (Mollard et al. 2013). In Chapter Three, in a two-factor experiment, I examined the degree to which the addition of peat-mineral mix (PM) to different types of OSPM (Consolidated- tailings (CT),, Tailings-sand (TS)) and OSPW affect C. aquatilis performance, I also tested the effects of oil sands process water (OSPW) on C. aquatilis. I assessed survival, below- and aboveground biomass, and physiological responses (chlorophyll a fluorescence). My results revealed that the addition of PM to OSPM significantly increases C. aquatilis survival as well as altering below and aboveground biomass. The use of OSPW significantly reduced C. aquatilis belowground biomass and affected its physiological performance. 3) The development of created site function must be similar to reference sites (Vitt and Bhatti 2012). In Chapter Four, I quantified the variation of the zone area of natural marshes over time to provide a range of acceptable benchmarks that can guide reclamation. Reclaiming wetland hydrological processes may be the first of the factors essential to reclaiming wetland structure and functions. The aim of my study was thus to define and compare natural and created marsh zone area and vegetation biomass variation over time and to identify abiotic factors that influence the patterns observed. I used a series of historical aerial photos and ground-based methods to quantify zone area and vegetation aboveground biomass variation over time. I demonstrated that unlike natural marshes, created marsh SAVZ occupied a greater proportion of the total marsh area than the VZ. Both the SAVZ and VZ surfaces of created marshes were more stable over time than those of natural marshes. Mean maximum temperature and annual snow were identified as the simplest ways to predict SAVZ area within natural marshes for a given year. The ratio of marsh area to volume described SAVZ area variation and provided prescriptive guidance for construction of reclaimed marshes. In Chapter Five, I reviewed my general objectives, the main questions investigated, and the conclusions reached by my work. vi I would like to acknowledge the co-authors who dedicated their time and thoughts to the development of the manuscript that appears as Chapter Three in this dissertation. The manuscript(Chapter three) has been modified to fit within the dissertation as a whole. Published in a Peer-Reviewed Journal: Roy, M.C., P.O. Mollard, and L.A. Foote. 2014. Do peat amendments to oil sands wet sediments affect Carex aquatilis biomass for reclamation success? Environmental Management. 139: 154-163. Literature Cited Mollard, F.P.O., M.C. Roy, K. Frederick, L. Foote. 2012. Growth of the dominant macrophyte Carex aquatilis is inhibited in oil sands affected wetlands in Northern Alberta, Canada. Ecological Engineering. 38: 11-19. Odum, E.P. 1969. The strategy of ecosystem development. Science. 164: 262-270. Raab, D., S.E. Bayley. 2013. A Carex species-dominated marsh community represents the best short-term target for reclaiming wet meadow habitat following oil sands mining in Alberta, Canada. Ecological Engineering. 54: 97-106. Vitt, D.H., J.S. Bhatti. 2012. Restoration and Reclamation of Boreal Ecosystems: Attaining Sustainable Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. USA. vii Acknowledgments Numerous people were involved in this Ph.D. First, my supervisor Dr. Lee Foote who gave me the latitude to explore and the freedom to make mistakes. From him I have learnt that despite this academic marathon, life must be enjoyed. My co-supervisor Jan Ciborowski with whom I have discussed statistics numerous times in a truck somewhere along Highway 63. My thesis committee Dr. David Locky and Dr. Suzanne Bayley, for their support, guidance, and for sharing with me their knowledge and passion as did my examining committee members Dr. Glynnis Hood, Dr. Janusz Zwiazek, and Dr. Edward Bork. A very special thank you to Carla Wytrykush for her support in the field and during my defense. Additional thanks to my fellow students: Andrea McGregor, Shari Clare, Laura McPherson, Kurt Frederick, Joshua Martin, Jesse Gardner-Costa, Carsten Slama, Katie Williams, Sheeva Gardner-Costa, for their camaraderie and support.