SYMPATHY, ANTIPATHY, HOSTILITY. BRITISH ATTITUDES TO NON-REPATRIABLE POLES AND UKRAINIANS AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND TO THE HUNGARIAN REFUGEES OF 1956 by JANINE HANSON Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Sheffield, Department of History June 1995. CONTENTS PART ONE : INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction to the thesis ..•••.••••••. 7 2. Events in Eastern Europe •••....••..•.•. 11 3. Events leadin to Polish dis lacement .• 12 German-occupied Po an •••••••••.•..•••• 12 Soviet-Polish relations ••••••••••...••• 15 Post-war Poland ••••••••••••••..•••.•••• 21 Displaced Persons .••••••••••.•••••••..• 23 Poles in Britain (a) The Government-in-Exile •.•••.•.... 25 (b) Polish troops in Britain •••••••••• 27 Concluding comment .••.•.•••••..•.•..... 29 4. Events leading to Ukrainian displacement ••..••••••••..•••••••.•.••• 30 Ukrainian nationalism within the Soviet Union........................... 30 Ukrainians during the Second World War. • . .. 33 Polish Ukrainians ••.•.•.•••....•••.•..• 37 Subcarpathian Ruthenia •••••••••••..•••• 40 Attitudes towards Communism •••.•.•..•.• 42 Economic factors .••.•••••.•..•••.••..•• 43 Forcible repatriations .•..••••••••..... 44 5. The events in Hungary leading to the flight abroad •••••••••.•.••••••••..•.•• 49 The Communist takeover of Hungary .••••. 49 Nagy's first attempt at reform •.•••.••• 51 The 1956 uprising ••.•••.••.••••••••.••. 53 The Hungarian refugees ••.•.•.••••.••••• 56 Hungary after the uprising ••.••••••..•• 60 PART TWO : THE RESPONSES TO THE REFUGEES ON A NATIONAL LEVEL 6. A brief overview of the responses of post-war Britain to East European refugees. .. 64 Introduction. • . • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • •. 64 The manpower shortage .••••••••...•.•••• 65 The foreign labour schemes •.•••.••••••• 67 Selection, suitability and security •••• 70 Consultations with organized labour •••• 74 Employment - restrictions on choice •••• 78 Statistics - the numbers involved •••••• 84 Accommodation ••••••••••••••.••...•..••• 87 The Distressed Relatives Scheme ••.•.••• 92 Healthcare provisions ••••••.•••.••••.•. 94 Language teaching and educational prov1s10n •..•••..••••••••••.•••.••••••• 98 Preparing an easy reception •••.•••.•••• l02 Later arrivals - hardcore DPs •••••••••. 106 Re-emigration of EVWs ••••.••.•.••••••.. 107 Naturalization •••••.••••••••••.•••••••• 108 Restrictions on non-naturalized residents •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 110 7. The responses in Britain to the Polish arrivals of the 1940s •••••..••..•.•.•.. 112 The arrival of Poles in Britain during the Second World War ••••••••••••••••••• 112 The Polish Resettlement Act, 1947 •••••• 113 The arrival of dependants of the Polish forces in Britain ••••...•.•.••.. 116 European Volunteer Workers ••••••••••••• 117 The numbers involved in Polish resettlement in Britain •••••••••••••••• 118 The acquisition of British citizenship.121 Em pI 0 ym e n t . 12 5 The Polish Resettlement Corps ••••••.••• 125 The general attitudes of the trades unions towards Polish employment in Britain ................................ 132 The position of Polish European Volunteer Workers •••••••.•••••••••.•.•• 136 The occupational structure of the Poles in Britain after the Second World War •• 137 Agricultural employment •..•.•.••••••••• 140 Polish employment in coalmining •••••••• 142 Polish employment in the textile industry ............................... 145 Other employment ••.••...•.•.•.....•.... 146 The employment of Polish women •.••.•••• 153 General conclusions on employment •••.•. 154 The geographical distribution of Poles in Britain ••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••• 154 Polish camps and hostels •••••••....•.•• 155 Ilford Park ............................ 159 Private accommodation •••••••••.•.•.•.•. 161 The role of religion in the Polish communi ty .•••••••••••••••••••.•••.•.••• 162 Polish community organizations in Britain after the Second World War •.••• 165 Polish newspapers ••••..••.••.•••.••.••• 167 Political activity of Poles in Britain.168 Healthcare provisions •••..••••••••...•• 171 English language acquisition •••.••..••• 173 Education provision for Polish schoolchildren in Britain •••.•••••.••.. 178 Facilities for higher education •••••••. 179 Technical education ••••.•.•.••.•••••••• 182 The organization of the education of Poles in Great Britain ••••.•..•••.••••• 184 The effect of British attitudes towards the Soviet Union on relationships with the Polish exile community ••••••••••••.•.••••••••••••.•. 187 Non-repatriable Poles •.••.••••••.•••.•• 189 The Poles as former allies .••••••.••... 195 Accusations of fascist sympathies •••••• 197 Images of Polish criminality •...•••.••• 200 Problems created by the uneven gender distribution of the Poles in Britain .•• 202 Conclusion ••••••••••••••••.•.••..•.•••• 204 8. The responses to Ukrainians in Britain.207 British perceptions of the 'Ukrainian problem' ............................... 207 The transfer to Britain of Ukrainian prisoners of war •.•••••••••••••••...••• 211 The labour shortage (a) The use of prisoners of war •••..•. 212 (b) The use of European Volunteer Workers ........................... 215 The Ukrainians in Britain - numbers involved ............................... 218 Later arrivals •••••••.•••••.••••••••••• 219 Concern over the forcible repatriations ••.••.••...••••••••••.••.• 221 Deportations from Britain •••••••••..•.• 222 Re-emigration •••••••••••••.•••.•••...•. 226 Naturalization •••••••••••.••••.••••.••. 226 Provision of accommodation •..•.••.•.••• 229 Religious composition and provision •••• 230 Ukrainian community associations ••••••• 231 Political activity amongst Ukrainians in Britain •••••••.•..•••••.. 236 Heal thcare ••.•...•.••••.•..•..••.••..•• 239 English language acquisition •••.•••••.• 240 Educationalopportunities •••.•...••..•• 242 Social attitudes (a) Gender distribution and inter-marriage ••••.•.•••••••...••• 244 (b) British perceptions of Ukrainians prior to their arrival in Britain.244 Security screening of Ukrainians entering Britain; its aftermath and the war crimes debate ••••••..•.•.••.•.• 246 The war crimes issue .•••••••.•..••••••. 250 9. The responses in Britain to the Hun~arian refugees 1956-7 .••.•.•.•••••• 259 195 : The response of the British Government and the arrival of the Hungarians in Britain •...••••••••••.•.• 259 Emigration and repatriation •••••••••..• 261 Arrivals from the camps in Yugoslavia .. 264 Security measures on arrival .••••••..•• 266 Later arrivals ••••••..•.....•.••....•.• 268 Organized reception of the refugees •.•• 270 Popular sympathy •..••••••••••..•••.•.•. 271 The financial response and charity activities in aid of the refugees .••.•• 278 Hostility towards Hungarian refugees .•. 282 The Hungarian community in Britain ...•• 287 Language difficulties and English language acquisition ••••••••••••••••.•• 292 Educationalopportunities •.•.•••.••••.. 295 Accommodation provision ••.••••••••••..• 296 The employment of Hungarian refugees in Britain •••.•.••••••••••.•.•••••••.•• 299 Social attitudes; the effect on assimilation and integration •.••••••••• 308 Naturalization •••.••••.•••••••••••••••• 309 PART THREE : THE RESPONSES TO THE REFUGEES IN YORKSHIRE 10. The reception of Poles in Yorkshire from 1945 onwards •.•••••••......••••••• 311 Introduction •••••••••••••••...••••••••• 311 Population ••••••••••.•••••••..•.••••••• 311 Employment ••••••••..••..•.....•.•.••.•• 314 Accommodation ••••.•••..••••••••.•.••••. 324 Social and political attitudes towards the Poles .............................. 332 Polish community organization in Yorkshire (a) The Anglo-Polish Society ••••••..•• 340 (b) Religious organizations in Bradford .......................... 341 (c) Other forms of community activity.344 (d) Religious organization in Sheffield •••••••.•••••••.••••••••. 346 (e) Other organizations in Sheffield •. 346 Healthcare and social welfare in Bradford ............................... 348 Language provision for Poles in Yorkshire ............................. 353 Education ••••••••.•.•.••••..•••.••••••. 358 Concluding comment ••.••....•..•.•.•••.• 360 11. The reception of Ukrainians in Yorkshire from 1945 onwards •••..•.•••.• 362 Introduction : Ukrainian prisoners of war in Yorkshire •••.••••.•••.•...•.•••. 362 Numbers involved ••••••.••••••••••...••. 369 Employment ............................. 370 Accommodation •..•••••.••••••••••••••.•. 382 English language provision ••••..••....• 388 Educa t ion ••••••..•..••.••••••••••.•••.• 393 Religious provision .•.••••••.•..••••••. 395 Ukrainian community organizations .••••• 399 Soviet intimidation of the Ukrainian community in Britain ...•••••••••.•••••. 402 Political activity •....••••••••.••.•••• 404 Social attitudes (a) Ukrainians and the Soviet Union .•• 407 (b) Visibility •••••••••••••••••••••..• 410 (c) Marriage patterns •••••••••.•.••.•• 411 (d) Repatriation and naturalization •.. 414 (e) Anti-semitism in the Ukrainian community ••••.•.••.•••••.••.•••••. 416 (f) The war crimes issue ••.•.....•.••. 417 (g) Community relations between the Ukrainians and the English •••••••• 419 (h) Ukrainian community relations with other immigrant groups ••••••• 419 12. The reception of Hungarians in Yorkshire from 1956 onwards ••••••••..•. 421 The arrival of the Hungarians in Yorkshire .............................. 421 Relief efforts •••••••••••••.•...••.•••. 426 Organizing the Hungarian community ••••• 433 The numbers involved .•.••.••••.•••••••• 435 Employment ••••••.••..••.••...•••••••••. 438 Accommodation ••••••••••••••••••...••••. 444 Acquisition of the English