بسمه تعالی Towards a Methodology for Improving Strategy-based Translation Training: Explored through an English-Persian Case Study Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Translation Studies Seyed Hossein Heydarian Cardiff University - 2017 i Abstract This study initially aims to draw up a plan for the implementation of the concept of translation strategies in translation training. It presents a new method to improve translation competence in an educational context. Moreover, it is an attempt to determine how the application of different facets of the concept of competence can lead us to establish an effective plan for translation training courses in any environment. This will be sought for through the analysis of more significant strategies in terms of educational value and through a novel methodology. The scope of the concept of strategies for pedagogical purposes is initially identified, while various considerations of the same term within the discipline are examined. As an important related notion, the issue of translation universals and their link to corpus-based translation studies are presented before introducing and developing a strategy-based translation training model. In order to recognise the educational significance of strategies, i.e. to find and classify the degree of the importance of translational solutions for any language pair, an analytical paradigm is proposed. The paradigm is based on the relation between the frequency of the occurrence of each strategy, on the one hand, and the average scores which are given to that strategy by the raters, on the other and examined through English-into-Persian translation practice in an academic setting. As the theoretical framework of the study, the main categorisation of translation problems proposed by Baker (1992/2011) and slightly revised by González Davies (2004) is analysed and modified based on different theoretical discussions as well as the findings of the mentioned paradigm. Though, the ultimate goal of this study has not been confined to the two languages involved, the researcher has reached some important findings for English-Persian pair through such an exposure. Baker’s primary categorisation that sees translation problems ‘at word level’ and ‘above word level’ is extended by adding a new category, ‘at the level of non-lexical items’, by considering difference and less popularity of using punctuation marks in languages like Persian as the target language. In the second degree, and according to the analysis of academic translation data, new subcategories are added to her list, while the importance of some of her subcategories is not observed in reality of current students’ works. Therefore, by introducing and ii testing a problem-strategy paradigm, the areas of educational significance of translation strategies are demonstrated, not only by re-defining the Baker-Davies’ model but also by proving the practicality of the methodology. On the whole, the research has aided to explore a developed strategy-based translation training model by linking the principal concepts categorized as: ‘translation strategies’, ‘translation competence’ and ‘paradigm of educational significance’. iii I, Seyed Hossein Heydarian, confirm that except where indicated by specific reference, the work submitted is the result of my own investigation and the views expressed are those of myself. I also confirm that no portion of the work presented has been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Seyed Hossein Heydarian 11/12/2017 iv بِسْمِ اهللِ الرَّحْمنِ الرَّحِيمِ Acknowledgements I would like to express my special thanks and appreciation to my supervisors Dr. Dorota Goluch and Professor Rachael Langford, who encouraged and supported me and have been wonderful mentors. I would also like to thank my first supervisor, Professor Alexis Nuselovici for his invaluable support, inviting me to Cardiff University, and initiating my PhD. A special thanks goes to my family. I am so grateful to my mother and father for all of the sacrifices they have made; to my father who sadly left us to start his eternal journey during my study. Their prayers for me sustained me thus far. To my two older brothers Ali and Mohammad, for their valued support; and to all my friends and academic colleagues including those in Tehran or in Cardiff, who supported me and helped me reach my goal. v List of Tables Table 1-1: Comparison of alternative ways to describe translation strategy/strategies----------------------- 14 Table 1-2: Three word order categories based on Greenberg’s 30-Language sample ------------------------- 20 Table 1-3: Different terminologies used for the two main types of translation corpora ---------------------- 25 Table 2-1: Inclusion of Neubert and EC elements of translation competencies --------------------------------- 44 Table 2-2: Possible models of in-class activities in a translation classroom with an ad-hoc approach ----- 49 Table 2-3: Possible models of in-class activities in a translation classroom with a strategy-based approach--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 51 Table 2-4: A comparison between characteristics of Translator Training and Translation Education ------ 53 Table 2-5: List of modules in BA English translation course in Iran ------------------------------------------------- 59 Table 2-6: Overall answers received from the translation teachers to the questionnaire -------------------- 62 Table 3-1: Strategies presented to solve non-equivalence at word level ----------------------------------------- 71 Table 3-2: Strategies presented to solve non-equivalence above word level ------------------------------------ 72 Table 3-3: Number of problem strategy sets at word and above word level based on Baker-Davies model --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74 Table 3-4: Possible results of the scores and frequencies and their educational significance --------------- 82 Table 3-5: Titles of the collected source texts and their details ----------------------------------------------------- 88 Table 3-6: Likert scale used for scoring translation strategies ------------------------------------------------------- 90 Table 3-7: Problem: The source language concept is not well lexicalised in the TL ---------------------------- 93 Table 3-8: Problem: Inconsistency of Translation of Proper Nouns in TL ------------------------------------------ 94 Table 3-9: Problem: The occurrence of non-strategy is very low ---------------------------------------------------- 95 Table 3-10: The possible results regarding educational significance and their meanings and instances -- 96 Table 3-11: Web of relations and possible P-S sets --------------------------------------------------------------------- 99 Table 3-12: A screenshot from the analysable Excel workbook, showing the P1 worksheet with 17 translation samples and scoring strategies for one of the translational problems --------------------------- 103 Table 4-1: An overall view on the number of the translation projects and the problems and strategies which are analysed in this study ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 109 Table 4-2: The translation problems found in 9 selected texts and their relevance with Baker-Davies model ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 112 Table 4-3: Overall numerical fact about the high-frequent translation problems in the study ------------ 116 Table 4-4: A short excerpt taken from the main students’ problem-strategy table for P10: The source language concept is not lexicalised in the target‎ language (from Source Text 3: Mass Media) ------------ 121 Table 4-5: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P10: The source language concept is not lexicalised in the t‎arget language (from Source Text 2: Mass Media) ------------------------ 124 Table 4-6: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P27: The source language concept is not lexicalised in the target language ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 126 Table 4-7: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P3: Situational word or expression in source text (from Text 1- Brainstorming) ------------------------------------------------------------- 130 Table 4-8: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P7: Situational word or expression in source text (from Text 2- Babies Feel Pain like Adults) -------------------------------------------- 132 i Table 4-9: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P23: The tension between accuracy and naturalness (from Source Text 6: Air Pollution) ----------------------------------------------------- 135 Table 4-10: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P9: The tension between accuracy and naturalness - for translating noun clause (from Source Text 3: Mass Media) ---------------- 138 Table 4-11: A representative selection of students’ problem-strategy table for P1: Marked collocations in the source text (from Source Text 1: Brainstorming) -----------------------------------------------------------------