THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL The Economic, Social and Conservation Benefits of Recreation-orientated Artificial Reefs being a Thesis submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Biological Sciences in the University of Hull by Anne Elizabeth Kirkbride-Smith B.Sc. (Hons) (University of York) December 2014 Petrarch’s Principle; “is to know things unseen, yet to ignore things seen” Francesco Petrarch (1358) i Abstract Coral reefs are highly diverse and economically important. Despite this, a confluence of anthropogenic threats endangers reefs globally. The diving tourism industry is an important beneficiary of coral reefs, especially reefs located within the tropical latitudes. With a recent increase in popularity of diving tourism concomitant with a global expansion of marine coastal tourism, reef managers and policy makers are presented with fresh challenges. This study explores the potential economic, social and conservation impacts of artificial reefs as recreational scuba diving resources and investigates their use as a reef management strategy within a marine protected area. A majority of the study was conducted on the Caribbean island of Barbados, West Indies. In the first part of the thesis, I estimate the economic benefits of recreation- orientated artificial reefs through a synthesis of data, and find that artificial reefs have a substantial recreation value. The need for more detailed, high-quality artificial reef valuation studies, that use a standard reporting protocol, is recommended. The second part of the thesis is based on field work using questionnaires to solicit information from users of artificial reefs. Interviews reveal novice divers have a preference for artificial reefs for local diving in contrast to experienced divers who have an overriding preference to dive on natural reefs. Moreover, an inverse relationship exists between diver experience and satisfaction of artificial reef diving, with novices being very satisfied with the experience. Using 24 variables to measure diver enjoyment between artificial and natural reef sites, I establish participants experience significantly higher levels of enjoyment at artificial reefs. Further, it was shown that enjoyment of artificial reefs is attributed to the challenge of the dive, new experiences and photographic opportunities. Irrespective of reef type, I find novices are significantly more influenced by personal incentive attributes of the dive (e.g. updating diving skills), while biophysical aspects of the reef and photography contribute significantly more to experienced divers enjoyment. A contingent valuation study of visitors to pay a daily marine park entrance fee reveals a higher mean willingness to pay (US$18.33) for natural reef conservation than for protecting and maintaining artificial reefs (US$17.58). Variables that exhibit significant explanatory power of willingness to pay include the number of species viewed, age of respondent and level of concern for coral reefs. ii Table of Contents Abstract ii Table of Contents iii List of Tables vii List of Figures ix Acknowledgements xi General Introduction 1 References 9 Chapter 1 The Use of Artificial Reefs as Recreational Scuba Diving Resources: Investigating the Potential 19 1.1 Abstract 19 1.2 Introduction 19 1.3 Purpose and Aims of Chapter 1 23 1.4 Artificial Reefs 23 1.4.1 Definition 23 1.4.2 History and Geographical Distribution 24 1.4.3 Purposes 25 1.4.4 Materials 27 1.4.4.1 Biorock 30 1.4.4.2 EcoReef 32 1.4.4.3 Reef BallsTM 33 1.4.5 Planning of Artificial Reefs 36 1.4.5.1 Advance planning 36 1.4.5.2 Site location and reef design 37 1.4.5.3 Permitting 40 1.4.5.4 Construction and deployment 41 1.4.5.5 Maintenance and management 41 1.4.5.6 Project evaluation 42 1.4.5.7 Summary of artificial reef planning 43 1.4.6 Comparison of Artificial Reefs with Natural Coral Habitats 44 1.4.6.1 Fish assemblages 44 1.4.6.2 Coral assemblages 45 1.4.7 Artificial Reefs, Recreational Enhancement and Scuba Diving 46 1.5 Artificial Reefs and Scuba Diving Research 50 1.5.1 General Review and Theory 51 1.5.2 Environmental Engineering 51 1.5.3 Social Dimensions of Scuba Diving on Artificial Reefs 52 1.5.4 Socio-Economic Impacts of Artificial Reefs 55 1.5.5 Ecological Impacts of Artificial Reefs 58 1.5.6 Summary of Reviewed Literature 59 iii 1.6 Future Research 63 1.6.1 Economic Valuation of Artificial Reefs 63 1.6.2 Attitudes to and Preferences for Artificial Reefs 64 1.6.3 Ecological Impacts of Artificial Reefs: Diverting Pressure from Coral Reefs 64 1.6.4 Artificial Reefs and Marine Protected Areas 65 1.7 Summary 65 References 67 Chapter 2 Measuring the Recreational Value of Artificial Reefs through a Synthesis of Data 96 2.1 Abstract 96 2.2 Introduction 97 2.3 How Artificial Reef Values are Measured 100 2.3.1 Market Impact of Artificial Reefs 101 2.3.2 Non-Market Impact of Artificial Reefs 101 2.4 Methods 104 2.4.1 Valuation Literature and Acquisition of Data 104 2.4.2 Screening of Data 105 2.5 Results 109 2.5.1 Literature Overview and Recreation Value Observations 109 2.5.2 Artificial Reef Value by; Recreational Activity, Valuation Method and Region 109 2.5.3 Artificial Reef Value by Annual Number of Visitors 113 2.5.4 Recreation Value: A Comparison of Artificial Reef and Natural Reef Habitats 114 2.6 Discussion 117 2.7 Conclusions 121 Acknowledgement 122 References 124 Chapter 3 The Relationship between Diver Experience Levels and Perceptions of Attractiveness of Artificial Reefs - Examination of a Potential Management Tool 134 3.1 Abstract 134 3.2 Introduction 135 3.2.1 Research Aims 138 3.3 Methods 140 3.3.1 Study Setting 140 3.3.2 Data Collection 142 3.3.3 Statistical Analysis 143 3.4 Results 144 3.4.1 Demographic Characteristics, Length of Stay and Reasons to Visit 144 3.4.2 Scuba Diver Experience 145 iv 3.4.3 Artificial Reef Awareness, Use and Preferred Material 146 3.4.4 Satisfaction with Artificial Reef Diving 147 3.4.5 Attitudes towards Artificial Reefs 150 3.4.6 Opinions and Preferences: Artificial Reefs vs. Natural Reefs 153 3.5 Discussion 155 3.5.1 Characteristics of the Diving Clientele of Barbados 155 3.5.2 Artificial Reef Awareness and Preferred Material 156 3.5.3 Satisfaction with Artificial Reef Diving 157 3.5.4 Opinions and Preferences: Artificial Reefs vs. Natural Reefs 159 3.5.5 Artificial Reefs: Management Implications for Diving Tourism and Reef Conservation 160 3.6 Conclusions and Further Research 162 References 164 Chapter 4 The Enjoyment of Scuba Diving Use of Artificial and Natural Reef Habitats 175 4.1 Abstract 175 4.2 Introduction 176 4.2.1 Research Aims 178 4.3 Methods 179 4.3.1 Study Area 179 4.3.2 Data Collection 181 4.3.3 Statistical Analysis 182 4.4 Results 183 4.4.1 Demographic Characteristics and Diving Experience 183 4.4.2 Diver Enjoyment of Artificial Reef and Natural Reef Diving Sites 184 4.4.3 Dive Site Attributes and Impact on Diver Enjoyment 187 4.4.4 The Influence of Factors on Diver Enjoyment and Diver Characteristics 188 4.5 Discussion 193 4.5.1 Diver Enjoyment of Artificial Reef and Natural Reef Diving Sites 194 4.5.2 Dive Site Attributes and Impact on Diver Enjoyment 195 4.5.3 The Influence of Factors on Diver Enjoyment and Diver Characteristics 199 4.5.4 Reef Substitution Policy as a Diving Management Strategy 200 4.6 Conclusions and Further Research 201 References 203 v Chapter 5 Artificial Reefs and Marine Protected Areas: A Study in Willingness to Pay to Access Folkestone Marine Reserve, Barbados, West Indies 215 5.1 Abstract 215 5.2 Introduction 216 5.2.1 Research Aims 220 5.3 Methods 222 5.3.1 Study Setting 222 5.3.2 Valuation Method and Related Issues 223 5.3.3 Survey Design and Data Collection 225 5.3.4 Data Analysis and Willingness to Pay Estimation 228 5.3.5 Econometric Analysis 229 5.4 Results 232 5.4.1 Visitor and Holiday Characteristics 232 5.4.2 Marine Recreation Participation 232 5.4.3 Folkestone Marine Reserve Willingness to Pay 233 5.4.4 Perceptions and Use of Artificial Reefs and Environmental Concern 236 5.4.5 Experience of Folkestone Marine Reserve 237 5.4.6 Econometric Analysis 238 5.5 Discussion 241 5.6 Conclusions and Further Research 248 References 249 Chapter 6 Summary, Implications and Conclusion 267 6.1 Discussion 267 6.2 Summary of Results and Principal Findings 268 6.3 Implications for Reef Management 274 6.4 Limitations and Further Research 277 6.5 Conclusion 280 References 281 Glossary 289 Appendix A Questionnaire 1 294 Appendix B Questionnaire Assessment Sheet 300 Appendix C Questionnaire 2 301 Appendix D Scree Plot and Related Statistical Outputs for Principal Component Analysis 303 Appendix E Questionnaire 3 305 Appendix F Artificial Reef Images for the Willingness to Pay Study 315 vi List of Tables Chapter 1 Table 1.1 Selected artificial reef definitions 24 Table 1.2 Reviewed literature: artificial reefs and scuba diving research 61 Chapter 2 Table 2.1 Willingness to pay questions reported in previous studies aimed at valuing reef recreation for artificial and natural reef habitats 103 Table 2.2 Studies included in the meta analysis 107 Table 2.3 Recreational values in US$ (2010 prices) reported by activity for per person-visit 110 Chapter 3 Table 3.1 Previous studies and key findings of motivational factors relating to diving on artificial reefs 139 Table 3.2 Ranked mean scores relating to the importance of artificial reef attributes for novice divers and experienced divers 150 Table 3.3 Divers’ ranked percentage agreement/disagreement to attitude statements concerning artificial reefs 152 Chapter 4 Table 4.1 Significant