Durham E-Theses From Republics of Armies to Kata'ibs of Militia, Sheikhs, and Warlords: Civil-Military Relations in Iraq and Yemen CHIMENTE, ANTHONY,MICHAEL How to cite: CHIMENTE, ANTHONY,MICHAEL (2019) From Republics of Armies to Kata'ibs of Militia, Sheikhs, and Warlords: Civil-Military Relations in Iraq and Yemen , Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/13331/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 From Republics of Armies to Kata'ibs of Militia, Sheikhs, and Warlords: Civil-Military Relations in Iraq and Yemen Abstract This thesis examines civil-military relations in two fragmented states of the Middle East, Iraq and Yemen. In the study of civil-military relations, scholars have historically viewed the ‘state’ as a given referent object of analysis when examining militaries in the region, the legacy of a predominantly Western- centric approach to understanding and explaining the centrality of the military to state identity. Yet, the Arab Spring witnessed the emergence of powerful non-state actors and the decline of the ideal Weberian state in favour of communalised military power along sectarian, tribal and ethnic lines. Strong national armies have been replaced by communally driven actors competing for power and influence. Post-Arab Spring models of civil-military relations have failed to address the relationship between weak, often-fragmented states and the impact of politically aligned-militia and sub-state coercive forces who can both complement but also challenge the central authority of the state. By using three frames to explain the communalisation of violence - tribalism and sectarianism, patrimonial economy, and the role of external actors – this thesis develops a new model of civil-military relations that has come to shape the nexus between the state and various armed groups. This moves our understanding of civil-military relations and its core construct beyond normative Western-centric frameworks advanced by Huntington and Janowitz, and further developed by other scholars. By using these three frames, this thesis argues that civil-military relations in fragmented states has become communalised, along ethnic, tribal and sectarian lines. This has in turn led many Arab states to face a crisis of legitimacy that stems from the inability of weak central authorities to fully control the monopoly of violence. Therefore, the state can no longer be considered the sole referent point in the study of civil- military relations as it applies to much of the contemporary Middle East. 1 From Republics of Armies to Kata'ibs of Militia, Sheikhs, and Warlords: Civil-Military Relations in Iraq and Yemen. By Anthony Chimente Ustinov College Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics. School of Government and International Affairs Durham University May 2019 2 Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….1 List of Illustrations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………....7 List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….8 Statement of Copyright…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11 Introduction and Methodology Research Background........................................................................................................12 Methodology....................................................................................................................15 Justification.......................................................................................................................16 Limitations........................................................................................................................19 Structure of the Thesis......................................................................................................21 Chapter 1: Literature Review and Conceptual Approach Western Structuring of the Civil-Military Relationship......................................................28 The Military as the Strongest State Institution..................................................................38 A Return to the Barracks...................................................................................................41 Arab Armies and the Arab Spring......................................................................................43 Collapse of the Weberian State Model.............................................................................48 Fragmentation of Militaries into Militia............................................................................49 The ‘Tribal-Sectarian’ Field as a Conceptual Approach to Civil-Military Relations in Fragmented States............................................................................................................56 Chapter 2: Historical Overview of Civil-Military Relations in Iraq Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...67 Colonial Beginnings, The Army, and Nation-Building…………………………………………………....67 The Party and The Army…………………………………………………………………………………………….....74 The Iraqi Army in Combat………………………………………………………………………………………….….81 Wither the Strong State and Army………………………………………………………………………………..86 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...95 Chapter 3: The Army in a Tribal State Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………………..............98 The Emergence of the Military-Tribal Nexus………………………………………………...................99 3 President Saleh, The Tribes, The Army, and The Politics of Patronage…………….............103 The Solidification of The Tribal Military Prior to Unification………………………............…...106 Civil-Military Relations in the PDRY 1967-1990…………………………………………..................108 Two Armies and 'National' Unification………………………………………………………..................112 Civil War and the Domination of Tribal-Military-Commercial Republic……….................114 Elite-military relations, Patronage, and Patrimony …………………………………….................117 Instability and Regime Decline…………………………………………………………………...................124 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………….................128 Chapter 4: Fragmentation of Iraq, The Army and The Struggle for Communal Predominance Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………….......................…130 The US, Tribes and Patronage in the Aftermath of the Invasion………....................………132 The tribes and Baghdad……………………………………………………………………....................…… .139 Tribes and the Rise of the Islamic State in Iraq...............................................................143 Loyalties and the Tribal-Military Balance…………………………………………..................….......147 Communal Politics and A communal Army……………………………………....................……… .151 The Ethno-Sectarian Politicization of the Army…………………………………….....................…153 Civil-Militia Relations and A Divided Army…………………………………………...................…….162 The Sunni Conundrum………………………………………………………………………...................… ….167 Decline of The Military…………………………………………………………………….................………...171 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………..................………. 173 Chapter 5: Military Relations in the Tribal Republic and the Patronage ‘Army’ Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………… ….........177 The ‘Army’ in Yemen…………………………………………………………………………………...................179 Sectarianism and Rebellion………………………………………………………………………...................187 Elite-Fragmentation, The Military and The Parallel Revolution……………………....... .........190 Warlords, The Armies and an ‘Army’…………………………………………………..........................195 Sectarianism, the Houthis and the vengeance of Saleh………………......................... .....….201 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….........................….207 4 Chapter 6: Corruption, Criminality, and the Hallow Army Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...................…….......210 Money-Ties that Bind the Tribes…………………………………………………………..................…….213 Communalism, Institutionalization of Corruption, and the Hallow Army......................222 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………….................230 Chapter 7: Tribesmen in Arms, Warlords and the Yemen Military Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………….................…….233 The ‘Tribal-Military Commercial Complex’.……………………………………………........….........…235 A Family Business and the Collapse of the Military-Patronage-State…………................…240 The Fragmenting Patronage Armies……………………………………………………................……….243 Rise of Warlordism…………………………………………………………………………................……………249 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………................…………….254 Chapter 8: External Actors, Militia, and the Paper Tiger Army Introduction………………………………………………………………………................……………………….258 The