THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE AMERICAN STANDARD OF CIVILIZATION by Taesuh Cha A dissertation submitted to Johns Hopkins University in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Baltimore, Maryland May, 2016 © 2016 Taesuh Cha All Rights Reserved Abstract This dissertation asks how American identity was formed, contested, and manifested through its interaction with two significant Others — the European empires and the Native Americans — during the country’s formative era in order to understand the origins of American liberal internationalism and popular imperialism. I argue that American identity was constituted in two different ways: as a transformative state against the Westphalian system, and as a civilizing force over “barbarian” natives. Two of the main US foreign policy orientations — the Jeffersonian and the Jacksonian traditions— result from these formative encounters. I demonstrate that a hierarchical, tripartite model of the “standard of civilization” in American security discourse emerged at the turn of the nineteenth century: the USA was at the top, as the revolutionary vanguard of human progress; European international society, which would be eventually reformed in America’s own image, is in the middle; and at the bottom are non-white Others who need to be removed or assimilated. By examining plural and contested American identities and their contending foreign policy traditions, this study offers a new perspective on several important historical and contemporary features of American foreign policy. With the constructivist prism of identity–interest–policy contestations and mixtures, the United States’ contradictory and differentiated attitudes towards the West and the “Rest” can be explained. Underlying my academic interests is an ethical concern about the trajectory of inter-civilizational relationship in modern global politics. This project sheds light on the exclusivist form of American exceptionalism that is obsessed with the representation of “inferior” Others, as well as a desire to reconstruct them in the American image. By engaging this normative question about dialogues among different civilizations, this research explores alternative options for US grand strategy in the age of the War on Terrorism. ii First reader: Daniel H. Deudney Second reader: Renée Marlin-Bennett Third reader: Adam Sheingate iii Acknowledgements Long before the argument presented in this dissertation crystallized, the intellectual seeds were planted and nurtured by my teachers. I have been privileged to have been educated by a series of extraordinary universities. At Johns Hopkins, first and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude to the members of my dissertation committee, Daniel Deudney, Renée Marlin-Bennett, and Adam Sheingate. In particular, Dan Deudney, as my advisor, has overseen the planning of this research project and have given my work minute consideration for over six years. I can never fully repay him, except to promise that I will try my best to emulate his remarkable example when I myself begin to advise my own students in the future. I should also mention a special word of appreciation for Siba Grovogui, Bentley Allan, Michael Hanchard, and P.J. Brendese. In addition, I was especially fortunate to be taught by many outstanding and inspiring professors at Seoul National University. I am deeply indebted to Young-Sun Ha, Jung-Woon Choi, Wookhee Shin, and Chaesung Chun. Earlier versions of parts of this dissertation were presented at several annual conventions of the American Political Science Association (2015), the International Studies Association (2015; 2016), the International Studies Association-Northeast (2014; 2015), and JHU Racism, Immigration, & Citizenship Graduate Student Conference (2015). I am deeply indebted to Mlada Bukovansky, Elizabeth Cohen, N.D.B. Connolly, Julian Go, Xavier Guillaume, Patrick Thaddeus Jackson, Michael Lind, John Mearsheimer, John Mitton, Jennifer Mitzen, Joseph Parent, Peter Trubowitz, and Lora Viola, who offered valuable comments on my conference papers. I similarly benefited greatly from the comments from John M. Hobson, Ted Hopf, and Daniel Nexon. Additionally, Peter Katzenstein deserves special mention. Although he never knew me before, he expressed his great interest in my project and gave excellent suggestions not only for my research and but also for my future career, when I visited Cornell. His warm hospitality and moral support meant a lot to me. iv I am also grateful to my Hopkins graduate colleagues, Kavi Abraham, Yehonatan Abramson, Hitomi Koyama, Casey McNeill, Benjamin Meiches, Elizabeth Mendenhall, Chad Shomura, Tarek Tutunji, and Túlio Zille for their camaraderie. When it comes to writing a dissertation abroad, an international student’s family pays a big price. My parents, Hyojoon Cha and Hwasook Kim, have always been there for me. They have provided all sorts of tangible and intangible support. I am very happy that they no longer need to ask me, “When are you going to finish it?” It is to them that I dedicate The Construction of the American Standard of Civilization. Lastly, I would like to offer my special thanks to Youngran Park, my dearest friend. A brilliant graduate student and ambitious young scientist in her own right, she understands the process of academic research and all the emotional stresses and frustrations that go with it. She always supported me in times of struggle and was a willing (I believe!) audience whenever I needed to vent while writing the dissertation. Without her, I would not have been able to finish my Ph.D. study. v Table of Contents I. Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 1 II. The Analytic Framework ...................................................................................................................................... 4 III. The New World vs. The Old World: The Revolutionary State against the European International System ................................................................................................................................................... 48 IV. Civilization vs. Barbarism: the White “Civilizing” State against the Red “Savages” . 80 V. The Two Contending Traditions and the Three-Tier Model ........................................................ 114 VI. Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................. 130 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................................. 154 Author’s Biographical Sketch ............................................................................................................................. 184 vi List of Tables Table 1 Bifurcation of the US Foreign Policy Traditions .................................... 41 Table 2 Antifederalists vs. Federalists ................................................................. 65 Table 3 Hamiltonian Realism vs. Jeffersonian Liberal Internationalism ............ 77 List of Figures Figure 1 Evolving Material Structures in Early Modern North America ............ 48 Figure 2 Three Models of Federal "Indian" Policy ........................................... 101 Figure 3 The American Standard of Civilization ............................................... 126 vii I. Introduction This dissertation asks how American exceptional identities were formed, contested, and manifested through their interaction with two significant Others, the European empires and the Native Americans, during the United States’ formative era (circa. 1754/56~1823/31). I argue that, in the wider systemic context of hegemonic rivalry between Britain and France, US identity, informed by its European discursive heritage–Republicanism, Christianity, and the Enlightenment–and entangled with two negative Others, was constituted in two different ways: as a transformative state against the Westphalian system and as a civilizing force over “barbarian” natives. Two of the main US foreign policy doctrines or contending conceptualizations of the national role with American characteristics, the Madisonian/Jeffersonian tradition (the origin of liberal internationalism) and the Jacksonian tradition (the origin of popular imperialism), were produced by these ambivalent American Selves. In this context, a hierarchical, tripartite model of the “standard of civilization” in American foreign policy discourse emerged at the turn of the nineteenth century. First, it defines the nature of the international system as well as the place of the nation in the world. Second, it produces a particular American attitude toward the outside: the USA at the top as a revolutionary vanguard of human progress, European international society that should be negotiated and reformed in the American own image later in the middle, and at the bottom, the “Rest,” non-white Others that need to be removed or assimilated. My study aims to offer an alternative hypothesis on US foreign policy by constructing a causal/constitutive mechanism between American exceptional identities, interests, and practices. It is a competing argument against the conventional structuralist/materialist understanding of US diplomacy in that America’s foreign behaviors will be illustrated as the outcome of its socially constructed