MELTING SNOW: THE CHANGING ROLES O F IQALUIT WOMEN IN FAMILY, WOR K AND SOCIETY. Mathilde Matthijsse Department of Anthropology January 2010 Thesis submitted to Durham University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy FIGURE 1: NUNAVUT 2 ABSTRACT My thesis is a detailed anthropological study of the experiences of women as a result of their changing gender roles in Inuit families, in the labour market and in Inuit society more broadly. Although McElroy reported as early as 1975 that ‘a higher percentage of the total population of women than of men are employed [in Frobisher Bay and Pangnirtung]’ (McElroy 1975:679) the effects of this have never been systematically researched. This thesis is the first to use theoretical constructs from Bourdieu’s toolkit, including the capitals (social, cultural, symbolic), the habitus and the cultural arbitrary as well as theories of empowerment, to analyse how women have constructed and negotiated meaning in their new roles as financial provider for their families. It draws on data collected during ten months of fieldwork in Iqaluit, Canada, using a mix of qualitative methods including in-depth interviews, group discussions and participant observation. My findings show that different ideologies, values, ways of life and habitus shape and are shaped by life experiences of women in contemporary Iqaluit. These differences find their basis in women’s upbringing, ranging from traditional, to transitional, to contemporary; women’s experiences with education; and their interactions with incoming institutions with different cultural origins. Social negotiations characterise the process in which women create roles and identities for themselves, combining these different influences. Women’s access to financial and cultural capital in some cases impacts on and is a consequence of women’s empowerment, and their ability to challenge the cultural arbitrary. However, whilst empowerment is generally seen as a positive development, it can upset the balance between partners or other family members, who may struggle to appropriate economic, cultural and social change to the same extent. For that reason, it is important that the people of Nunavut, both men and women, work together to create for themselves a place in their family, community and society in which they can provide a meaningful contribution. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to let the following people know that they have helped me in one way or another make this thesis a reality. I am grateful for your support! Cor Remie - for helping me realise I could do a PhD Jarich Oosten - for editing a very early version of my research plan Andrew Russell - for supervising me throughout my PhD studies Kate Hampshire - for supervising me and providing me with a much needed income Peter Collins - for his help with using theoretical constructs to make sense of my data Gina Porter - for supervising me for a year and providing comments on the final draft The postgrads, Lorna, Gerry, Beki and later Julia, Julia, Theresa and Steve - for comments, social and emotional support Jack Hicks - for welcoming me in the field and the contacts he provided Leena Evic - for tundra tea, movie nights and research contacts Sara Lise - for chat, movies and knitting Marie, Vero, Seizula and Margo - for sharing meals, music, laughter and friendship Tukisigiarvik, in particular Rosie and Elisapi and the instructors - for welcoming me, teaching me, encouraging me and keeping me sane Navarana, Miali and Laakkulluk - for their company and friendship during the sewing classes Matt & Rian, Amanda & Terry, Laakkulluk & Steve, Myna, Nancy, Annie & family, Rebekah & Glenn, Wende & Stephanie, Isabelle, Letia & Nathan - for hospitality and sharing great meals and evenings Janice - for a great volunteering opportunity and a cosy Christmas housesit Debbie - for allowing me into her classroom Mary - for her Inuktitut classes The women of Iqaluit - for taking the time to talk to me Durham University, The Association of Canadian Studies in the Netherlands, the International Council for Canadian Studies, Ustinov College and Sigma XI for financial support Michael, Nout, Lenny, Melissa, Fred and Mark - for being a loving family 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 7 2. INTRODUCING THE RESEARCHER AND THE PROJECT ................................................................... 11 2.1. MAKING CONTACTS .......................................................................................................................... 14 2.2. APPROACHING RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................................. 20 2.3. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS AND GROUP DISCUSSIONS ....................................................................... 21 2.4. PARTICIPATING IN COMMUNITY LIFE ..................................................................................................... 27 3.THEORETICAL CONCEPTS AND APPROACH AND THEIR APPLICATION TO THE CURRENT SITUATION IN NUNAVUT ................................................................................................................................. 31 4. A POLITICAL HISTORY OF THE ARCTIC IN RELATION TO ANTHROPOLOGICAL WRITINGS .............. 41 4.1. BEFORE THE 1800S: FIRST CONTACTS .................................................................................................. 41 4.2. 1800 – 1915: BOAS AND THE BIRTH OF ETHNOGRAPHY .......................................................................... 42 4.3. 1915-1929: HISTORICAL PARTICULARISM AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ................................................ 44 4.4. 1930S-1949: DIFFUSIONISM AND WARS .............................................................................................. 47 4.5. 1950S-1969: NEO-EVOLUTIONISM, ENVIRONMENT AND TECHNOLOGY AND THE MANCHESTER SCHOOL .......... 49 4.6. 1970S: INUIT ORGANISATION AND POLITICAL ACTIVIST ANTHROPOLOGY ...................................................... 53 4.7. 1980S-1999: CRITICAL REFLEXIVE ANTHROPOLOGY................................................................................ 55 4.8. 1999 AND AFTER: INUIT WRITING IN A CHANGING CLIMATE ...................................................................... 60 4.9. CHANGING GENDER ROLES AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS: DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE ................................ 64 4.10. PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................. 72 5. FAMILIES IN THE NORTH ............................................................................................................ 74 5.1 NAMING PRACTICES IN INUIT SOCIETY .................................................................................................... 75 5.2 GROWING UP ................................................................................................................................... 78 5.3. CHANGING IDEAS ABOUT SOCIALISATION AND PARENTING ........................................................................ 93 5.4. STRATEGIES OF ADOPTION ............................................................................................................... 103 5.5.CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 110 6. SOCIAL CAPITAL, GENDERED POWER RELATIONS AND EXPANDING HABITUS IN A SITUATION OF SOCIAL CHANGE .......................................................................................................................... 113 6.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 113 6.2 FAMILY DYNAMICS AND OPPORTUNITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS ................................... 118 6.3 POWER AND EXPECTATIONS AND THE POWER OF EXPECTATIONS ............................................................... 127 6.4 CHALLENGING AND BROADENING IDEOLOGY AND HABITUS ...................................................................... 135 6.5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 142 7. REDEFINING VALUES AND IDEOLOGIES IN THE CONTEXT OF WORK AND EDUCATION ............... 147 7.1 THE MEANING OF WORK AND EDUCATION IN TRADITIONAL AND MODERN INUIT SOCIETY ............................... 147 7.2 VALUES AND IDEOLOGIES OF WORK AND LEARNING ................................................................................ 153 7.3 CONFORMING AND CONFRONTING THE CULTURAL ARBITRARY .................................................................. 163 7.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................................. 168 8. WOMEN AND EDUCATION, POWER AND GOVERNANCE IN NUNAVUT SOCIETY TODAY............. 170 8.1 CREATING AN EDUCATIONAL HABITUS ................................................................................................. 170 8.2 CONTEMPORARY CONFLICTS OVER INUIT POWER AND GOVERNANCE .......................................................... 179 8.3 EMPOWERING PROCESSES: CREATING MEANINGFUL SELVES ....................................................................