TAll BUilDINGS AND URBAN ENVIRONMENT SERIES •••••••••••• COUNCIL ON TALL BUILDINGS AND URBAN HABITAT ••••••••••• Architecture of tall buildings I Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Committee 30 (Architecture) : contributors, Mir M, Ali ... fet aLl : editorial group. Mir M. Ali, chairman. Paul J. Annslrong, editor. p. em. - (Tall buildings and urban environment series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-07-012540-6 1. Tall buildings. 2. Architecture-Environmental aspects. I. Ali, Mir M .• date. lI. Annslrong. Paul J. III. Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. Committee 30 (Architecture) IV. Series. NA6230.A72 1995 720'.483-<1c20 94-47110 CIP Copyright C 1995 by McGraw-Hill. Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as pennitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976. no pan of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means. or stored in a data base or retrieval system. without the prior written per­ mission of the publisher. 1234567890 DOCIDOC 9009 87 65 ISBN 0-07-012540-6 For the Council on Tall Buildings, Lynn S. Beedle is the Editor-in-Chje! and Dolores B. Rice is the Managing Editor. For McGraw-Hill, the sponsoring editor was Joel Stein, the editing supervisor was David E. Fogarty, and the production supervisor was Pamela A. Pelton. This book was set in Times Roman by Cynthia L. Lewis of McGraw-Hill's ProfeSSional Book Group composition unit. Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw-Hill, Inc., from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw­ Hill nor ilS authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any in· fonnation published herein. and neither McGraw·HiII nor ilS authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this infonnation. This work is publi shed with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying infonnation but are nOI attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. Planning and Environmental Criteria Architecture of lalll Buildings Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat Committee 30 (Architecture) CONTRIBUTORS MirM. Ali Nestor lwankiw Kathryn H. Anthony Douglas Stephen Jones Paul J. Armstrong Michael K. Kim Eli Attia SCOll Melnick David P. Billington Clare Monk Sarah L Billington Tanwir Nawal. Roger Brockenbrough Gyo Obara Pao·Chj Chang Inigo Ortiz Massim o Pica Ciamarra Robert I. Selby Raymond J. Clark Bratish Sengupta Henry J. Cowan David C. Sharpe Carolyn Dry Alfred Swenson Mahjoub Elnimeiri Kenl.o Tange S. K. Ghosh Varkie Thomas Myron Goldsmith Ken Yeang Lawrence W. Haines James P. Warfield Editorial Group Mir M. Ali, Chairman Paul J. Armstrong, Editor McGraw· Hill, Inc. New Vork San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogot6 Caracn Usbon London Madrid Mexko City Milan Montreal New Deihl San Juan Singapore Sydnay Tokyo Toronto "'~ Contents 1. Architectural Design: Issues and Criteria 1 1.1. Historical Development of Tall Buildings 2 1.2. Form as a Critical Issue 7 1.3. Tall Buildings in the Urban Environment 12 1.4. The Supertall Building 15 1.5 . Architectuml Design Perspectives: Four Case Studies 16 1.6. Architectural Design Issues: Spain 34 1.7. Architectural Design Issues: Italy 45 1.8. Architectural Design Issues: Japan 58 1.9. Design Concepts and Challcnges: Seven Case Studies 61 1.10. Future Directions and Research Needs 74 1.11. COlldensed ReferenceslBibliography 78 2. Building Planning and Design Colla.boration 81 2.1. Building Planning and User Needs 82 2.2. Architectural-Structural Integration 94 2.3. Collaboration between Academia and Office Practice 106 2.4. Future Research 140 2.5. Condensed ReferencesIBibliogmphy 140 3. Urban Design and Development 143 3.1. Urban Design and Builtfonn Implications 144 3.2. Concept and Contellt in Urban Design 153 3.3. Urban Growth and Change in Developing Countries 156 3.4. Creating Urban Synergy: The Philadelphia Project 168 3.5. Future Research Needs 182 3.6. Condensed ReferenceslBibliography 183 4. Structural Expression in TaU Buildilngs 187 4.1. Histori cal Background 187 4.2. Buildings in Steel 194 4.3. Concrete Buildings 209 4.4. Collaboration and StruclUral Expression 222 4.5. Future Research 223 4.6. Condensed ReferenceslBibliography 224 xv 5. Aesthetics and Form 227 5.1. Building Aesthetics 227 5.2. Developments in Building Fonus and Aesthetics 240 5.3. Aesthetics and Structural Fonn: A Case Study 253 5.4. Search for a Skyscraper Style 256 5.5. Recent Trends in Aesthetics and Fonus 274 5.6. Condensed ReferencesIBibliography 283 6. Psychological Aspects 285 6. 1. Notes on Methodology 286 6.2. The Symbolism of1'a11 Buildings 286 6.3. Views of Tall Buildil ngs and Urban Skylines 293 6.4. Impact of Climate and Geological Events on Human Behavior 304 6.5. Building Entries and Lobbies 308 6.6. Passenger Behavior in Elevators 321 6.7. Psychological Issues in and around Tall Office Buildings 325 6.8. High-Rise Housing 328 6.9. Tall Parking Garages 334 6. 10. High-Rise Shopping: Centers 337 6. J 1, Future Outlook 341 6. 12 . Condensed ReferencesIBibliography 342 7. Facades: Principles and Paradigms 347 7.1. Style and Imagery of Facades 347 7.2. Frame, Wall, and Cladding 35 1 7.3. Composition and Ac~st hetics of Facades 352 7.4. The Architectural Expression of Facades 355 7.5. Modernism and the :international Style 361 7.6. The Commercial Facade: Eclecticism to Modernism 37 1 7.7. Post-MoLI}rnism and Classical Eclecticism 378 7.8. Materials and Their Impact on Expression 383 7.9. The Inl1uence of Technology on Facade Design 388 7.10. New Directions 392 7.11 . Future Research 399 7. 12. Appendix: Factors Influencing the Quality of Facades 400 7. 13. Condensed Referen,:eslBibliography 403 8. Building Systems Automation and Integration 407 8.1. Interdisciplinary Design 408 8.2. Architectural-Engineering Design Integration 416 8.3. Application of Computer Technology to the Building Industry 430 8.4. Appendix: Lucky-Goldstar International Business Center 435 8.5. Condensed Referenc:esIBibliography 458 9. Environmental Sy:stems 463 9.1. Design for Physiological Comfon 463 9.2. Environmental Control Systems 469 9.3. Preventive Fire-Safety Design 486 9.4. Fire Alarm. Communications, and Emergency Systems 495 9.5. Means of Egress for Fire Safety 499 Contents xvii 9.6. Structural Design for Fire Protection 504 9.7. Biomass Energy Source for an Urban Mixed-Use Tower 506 9.8. Sustainable Architecture 515 9.9. Condensed RefcrcnceslBibliography 519 10. Materials and Structures: Steel 521 10.1. Development of Steel· Frame Constructi on 521 10.2. Properties and Composition 524 10.3. Fabrication of Steel Products 525 10.4. Types of Steel 529 10.5. Steel Exposed 10 the Atmosphere 532 10.6. Application of Steel 535 10.7. Design Constraints 537 10.8. The Spine Structure 541 10.9. Composite Construction 545 10.10. Future Research 549 10.11. Condensed H.eferencesIBibliography 551 11 . Materials Sind Structures: Concrete 555 11.1. Historical Perspective 555 11 .2. PerfonnancCl Characteristics 562 I \.3. Concrete Building Systems 563 11.4. Structural Material Selection 568 11.5. Recent Developments 572 11.6. High-Strength Concrete for Seismic Regions 574 11.7. High-Performance Concrete 580 11.8. Reinforcing Steel for Concrete 583 11.9. Future Research 584 11.10. Appendix: Propenies and Application of Ribbed- Tor Steel 585 ILl I. Condensed ReferencesIBibliography 596 12. Materials cmd Structures: Masonry 599 12.1. Historical Perspective 599 12.2. Masonry Materials and Design 606 12.3. Nonstructural Masonry Enclosures 614 12.4. Structural Masonry Enclosures 624 12.5, Future Innovations in Masonry 629 12.6. Condensed References/Bibliography 631 Current Questions, Problems, and Research Needs 635 Nomenclature 643 Glossary 643 Abbreviations 669 Units 671 References/Bibliography 675 6 Psychological Aspects a camera with a zoom lens focused on a cityscape. With the setling at 28 mm for 1IIII~.'gl, view, we can see the entire city skyline, and as we zoom all the way to 135 a telephoto shot, we can focus on one building in detail. If we could zoom in l'urthe r, we might sec inside the windows of the building itself. Each point o/view unique experience. The intention of thi s chapter is 10 reflect upon the differ­ .,."peet;,,,,, from which people experience tall building Iypes. 6. 1 provides a framework from which to understand the ordering of topics !iii"",cloapi,e. Section 6.2 discusses the symbolic qualities of tall buildings. A brief building symbolism is provided. and the Empire Slale Building is iIIus­ u a speci fi c case in point. Section 6.3 addresses how people perceive tall build· "",cot) skylines from a di stance-whether from an airplane, a train, a car, or sim· &om a postcard. photograph. film. or other medium. Section 6.4 addresses the ~osl'ip, among climatic and geological events. tall buildings, and human behavior. begins to address how people perceive tall buildings from within- from the ~~~~;~(w't~o the lobby or atrium space. It raises a number of issues about how peo­ ~ around in tall buildings and how barricr·free design issues relate to tall Section 6.6 covers passenger behavior in elevators. It describes the phenom· ''''~" ;,;,, . behavior, personal space and crowding. and civil inattention as they are elevators. It also discusses fears and phobias about elevators. Finally, it wraps up of what happens when elevators are temporarily out of service. sections examine sociopsychological issues in a few specific types of Four types of buildings are hi ghli ghted here, two that have been the i research.