NASA Reference Publication 1390 Spacecraft System Failures and Anomalies Attributed to the Natural Space Environment K.L. Bedingfield, R.D. Leach, and M.B. Alexander, Editor Neutral ThermosphereNeutral Thermal Environment Solar EnvironmentSolar ll SSppaacc Plasma rraa ee uu EE tt nn v aa v Ionizing i Ionizing i r Meteoroid/ N N r Radiation o Orbital Debris o Radiation e e n n h h m m T T e e n n t t s s Geomagnetic Field Gravitational Field August 1996 NASA Reference Publication 1390 Spacecraft System Failures and Anomalies Attributed to the Natural Space Environment K.L. Bedingfield Universities Space Research Association • Huntsville, Alabama R.D. Leach Computer Sciences Corporation • Huntsville, Alabama M.B. Alexander, Editor Marshall Space Flight Center • MSFC, Alabama National Aeronautics and Space Administration Marshall Space Flight Center • MSFC, Alabama 35812 August 1996 i PREFACE The effects of the natural space environment on spacecraft design, development, and operation are the topic of a series of NASA Reference Publications currently being developed by the Electromagnetics and Aerospace Environments Branch, Systems Analysis and Integration Laboratory, Marshall Space Flight Center. This primer provides an overview of seven major areas of the natural space environment including brief definitions, related programmatic issues, and effects on various spacecraft subsystems. The primary focus is to present more than 100 case histories of spacecraft failures and anomalies documented from 1974 through 1994 attributed to the natural space environment. A better understanding of the natural space environment and its effects will enable spacecraft designers and managers to more effectively minimize program risks and costs, optimize design quality, and achieve mission objectives. iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1 Purpose and Scope ......................................................................................................................... 1 Recent Case Histories .................................................................................................................... 1 Environmental Effects on Communication Satellites .............................................................. 1 Solar-Terrestrial Phenomena ................................................................................................... 5 SPECIFIC ENVIRONMENTS............................................................................................................ 7 Neutral Thermosphere ................................................................................................................... 7 Environment Definition ........................................................................................................... 7 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................... 7 Representative Cases ............................................................................................................... 9 Skylab................................................................................................................................. 9 Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF)......................................................................... 9 Thermal.......................................................................................................................................... 9 Environment Definition ........................................................................................................... 9 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................. 10 Representative Cases ............................................................................................................. 12 Hubble Space Telescope (HST) ....................................................................................... 12 Galileo ............................................................................................................................. 12 GOES-7 ........................................................................................................................... 12 Plasma ......................................................................................................................................... 13 Environment Definition ......................................................................................................... 13 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................. 13 Representative Case ............................................................................................................... 15 Intelsat K ......................................................................................................................... 15 Meteoroids/Orbital Debris ........................................................................................................... 15 Environment Definition ......................................................................................................... 15 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................. 17 Representative Cases ............................................................................................................. 17 Space Shuttle (STS-45) ................................................................................................... 17 Shuttle Windshield Replacement ..................................................................................... 18 HST (STS-31) .................................................................................................................. 18 KOSMOS-1275 ............................................................................................................... 18 Solar ......................................................................................................................................... 18 Environment Definition ......................................................................................................... 18 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................. 20 v Representative Cases ............................................................................................................. 20 GOES-7 ........................................................................................................................... 20 NOAA-10 ........................................................................................................................ 20 GOES-5 ........................................................................................................................... 20 Ionizing Radiation ....................................................................................................................... 21 Environment Definition ......................................................................................................... 21 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................. 22 Representative Cases ............................................................................................................. 22 Hipparcos ......................................................................................................................... 22 ETS-6 ............................................................................................................................... 22 HST (STS-31) .................................................................................................................. 22 Geomagnetic Field....................................................................................................................... 23 Environment Definition ......................................................................................................... 23 Spacecraft Effects .................................................................................................................. 24 Representative Cases ............................................................................................................. 25 ANIK-B ........................................................................................................................... 25 Landsat-3 ......................................................................................................................... 25 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 26 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................. 27 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................. 29 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................................................ 30 Appendix References................................................................................................................... 41 vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Title Page 1.