Postwar Journeys: American and Vietnamese Transnational Peace Efforts since 1975 By © 2016 Hang Thi Thu Le-Tormala Submitted to the graduate degree program in History and the Graduate Faculty of the University of Kansas in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ______________________________________ Dr. Theodore Wilson (Chairperson) __________________________________ Dr. Sheyda Jahanbani (Co-Chairperson) __________________________________ Dr. Jeffrey Moran __________________________________ Dr. Sherrie Tucker __________________________________ Dr. William Tuttle __________________________________ Dr. James Willbanks Date Defended: April 29, 2016 ii The Dissertation Committee for Hang Thi Thu Le-Tormala certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Postwar Journeys: American and Vietnamese Transnational Peace Efforts since 1975 ______________________________________ Dr. Theodore Wilson (Chairperson) __________________________________ Dr. Sheyda Jahanbani (Co-Chairperson) Date approved: April 29, 2016 iii Abstract This dissertation explores U.S.-Vietnam postwar relations through the transnational peace endeavors of American and Vietnamese ordinary citizens. The subjects of the study included Vietnamese refugees, children of American personnel and Vietnamese women, American and Vietnamese veterans and their families, relatives of fallen soldiers on both sides, and other civilians who experienced the impacts of war one way or another. The dissertation also highlights the roles of nongovernmental organizations and individuals who strove for peace and mutual understanding through transnational humanitarian and cultural activities. The study’s major argument is three-fold. First, American and Vietnamese ordinary citizens were active historical actors in their changing environments. Second, it was ordinary citizens of both countries who laid the groundwork for U.S.-Vietnam diplomatic normalization. Third, the “universal human aspirations and emotions” (to borrow historian Akira Iriye’s words) played a significant role in U.S.-Vietnam postwar relations. This research reveals a plethora of boundary- crossing interactions between American and Vietnamese citizens, even during the times of extremely restricted diplomatic relations between the two nation-states. Bringing to center stage American and Vietnamese citizens’ efforts to solve postwar individual and social problems, this dissertation aims to bridge a gap in the scholarship on the U.S.-Vietnam relations. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It was an unforgettable moment when I bid farewell to Dr. Norman Yetman, Chair of the American Studies Department at the University of Kansas in May 2004, before I returned to Vietnam upon completing my Master’s program. He said, “Look at me in the eye, and tell me if you plan to further your studies.” In all honesty, I had not seriously thought about a Ph.D., but his firm handshake and the great encouragement in his eyes gave me no other options. I replied, “Yes, I will go back to graduate school. I just don’t know when yet because I have family obligations awaiting me in Vietnam.” He smiled happily, “Of course you don’t have to do it right now. I just want to hear you confirm that you will, and I would be very disappointed if you don’t want to further your academic career.” Thus I left KU with a promise, which was also a great debt for me, and at the time, I could not imagine how I was going to live up to my promise. To make the long story short, Dr. Yetman’s encouragement was a great source of my academic aspiration. He has my deepest gratitude. I had the great fortune to receive the guidance and support of extraordinary historians who comprise my dissertation committee. The wisdom and insight of my advisor, Dr. Theodore A. Wilson, have significantly contributed to my academic progress, especially the completion of this challenging project. His expertise in both diplomatic history and military history has been extremely helpful for my topic. I am deeply indebted to him for his timely advice, generous support, and great patience. I owe my history interest to Dr. William Tuttle, whose knowledge, inspiration, and dedication reshaped my academic path more than a decade ago. Since then he has been endlessly nurturing and generously devoted his time to the details of my project. To him, I am forever thankful. Throughout the completion of this dissertation, I have received v invaluable suggestions and encouragement from Dr. Sherrie Tucker. She graciously listened to my ideas and challenged me to deepen my thoughts. Her cheerful spirit was also helpful in stressful moments of graduate school. I deeply appreciate her presence and dedication. I owe Dr. Sheyda Jahanbani for the conceptualization of my historical approach for this dissertation. Thanks to her wonderful classes and apt reading selections, I “discovered” historian Akira Iriye’s “cultural transnationalism.” Dr. Jahanbani’s passion for transnational history has served as a great guidance for my research. I have also received great assistance from Dr. Jeffrey Moran since the first days of my Ph.D. program. He patiently listened to my inchoate ideas for an ambitious project and, again patiently, endured the twists and turns in my academic interests. It is with profound gratitude that I acknowledge Dr. Moran’s generous support. I am fortunate to also have Dr. James Willbanks on my committee. As an expert in U.S.-Vietnam relations and American veterans, he has been of vital help. I am very grateful to his speedy and insightful feedback. To complete this research, I relied largely on the Vietnam Center and Archive at the Texas Tech University in Lubbock, TX, for its invaluable collections of materials and helpful staff. I am especially thankful to archivist Sheon Montgomery for her hard work. Her resourcefulness and enthusiasm made my time at the archive much easier and more productive. In similar manner, the library staff at KU has quietly but greatly contributed to my studies. I also deeply appreciate the staff and residents of the Vietnam Friendship Village (Project U.S.A) in Van Canh, Hanoi, especially Director Dinh Van Tuyen and Manager Nguyen Ngoc Ha, for their helpfulness and hospitality. My heartfelt thanks also go to Nguyen Thanh Phu, Manager of Project RENEW’s Mine Action Visitor Center in Quang Tri, Vietnam. Visits to the Friendship Village and the Mine Action Visitor Center were very insightful and inspiring. My deepest vi thanks go to the interviewees for their crucial contributions to the research. During my stay in Hanoi for my research, I also received great assistance from my friends Nguyen Hien Thi and Tran Thanh Binh. Thi loaned me her scooter and Binh provided me with motherly care in her home. They made my intense trip enjoyable and unforgettable. I am grateful for their friendship and generosity. I owe a great deal to KU for its generous University Graduate Fellowship and the Doctoral Student Research Fund, without which this project simply could not exist and my dream of becoming a historian may have never come true. I would like to extend my sincere thankfulness to the following professors for broadening my historical knowledge through their wonderful courses: Dr. Paul Kelton, Dr. Kim Warren, Dr. Jennifer Weber, Dr. Jonathan Earle, Dr. Adrian Lewis, Dr. Ann Schofield, and Dr. Benjamin Chappell. They made my academic experiences at KU extraordinary. I have never adequately acknowledged my family for their endless support. My mother, mother-in-law, and siblings on both sides have been the greatest “cheer leaders” for my academic pursuits. They are also a source of humor that kept me sane during stressful times. The greatest supporter, and probably the one having to put up with me the most, however, is my husband, Peter Tormala. He endured my insane schedule, shouldered much of the housework, and listened to my frustrations. He also accompanied me to the Vietnam Archive and conferences, and diligently proofread every page of this dissertation. His love and supportiveness are beyond expectation. To my husband I dedicate this research. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................i Introduction......................................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 14 The Turbulent Years of Peace ..................................................................................................... 14 1. Drifting Expatriates…………………………………………………………………………… 14 2. Governmental Tensions ……………………………………………………………………….38 3. Humanitarian Aid ……………………………………………………………………….……..47 Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 56 Derelicts of War and Their Metamorphoses................................................................................ 56 1. Pathway to Father's Land ……………………………………………………………………...57 2. Old Ordeals in a New Home …………………………………………………………….…….69 3. Fulfilling the Amerasian Dream ………………………………………………………………80 Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................................................... 102 Groundwork for Diplomatic Normalization by