coverMRS6.qxd 4/9/02 12:24 PM Page 1 Recent Trends in Chinese Migration to Europe: Also available online at: M Fujianese Migration http://www.iom.int R S 6 in Perspective The June 2000 Dover tragedy, in which 58 Chinese nationals died while being smuggled No. 6 into the United Kingdom, alerted the general public, as well as policy makers, to issues relating to Chinese migration into Europe. However, the fact that over one million Chinese nationals already live in Europe, and that Chinese migration benefits both Europe and China, have received less attention in the media and in ongoing policy debate. What is lacking is a balanced understanding of the dynamics of Chinese migration to Europe. This report presents recent findings of the principal trends in Chinese migration to Europe, with detailed discussions on the particular characteristics of Fujianese flows. It also demonstrates that migrants from the central and western parts of the Fujian province represent changing migration patterns, in which Chinese from various areas and back- grounds are creating new emigration trends with diversified destinations. In fact, these new migrants are frequently receiving professional assistance in the migration process. This report identifies the principal gaps in the knowledge of Chinese migration to Europe and suggests future areas of research. It also considers relevant policy implications of these recent research findings. IOM IOM • OIM ISSN 1607-338X MRS_6IC.qxd 4/9/02 12:29 PM Page 1 Frank N. Pieke prepared this report as an independent consultant to the International Organization for Migration. Opinions expressed in this document are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of IOM. _______________ IOM is committed to the principle that humane and orderly migration benefits migrants and society. As an intergovernmental body, IOM acts with its partners in the international community to: assist in meeting the operational challenges of migration; advance under- standing of migration issues; encourage social and economic development through migration; and uphold the human dignity and well-being of migrants. Publisher: International Organization for Migration 17 route des Morillons 1211 Geneva 19 Switzerland Tel: +41.22.717 91 11 Fax: +41.22.798 61 50 E-mail: [email protected] Internet: http://www.iom.int _______________ ISSN 1607-338X © 2002 International Organization for Migration (IOM) _______________ All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy- ing, recording, or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher. Recent Trends in Chinese Migration to Europe: Fujianese Migration in Perspective Prepared for IOM by Frank N. Pieke University of Oxford, UK March 2002 1 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary 1. An Overview of Chinese Migration to Europe Before 1980 7 2. Recent Trends in Chinese Migration to Europe 10 2.1. Old and New Origins 10 3. Old and New Destinations and Occupations 16 3.1. Central and Eastern Europe 16 3.2. Southern Europe 17 3.3. Western Europe 18 4. New Migration Regimes and Modalities 20 4.1. Chinese Emigration Regimes 20 4.2. European Immigration Regimes 21 4.4. Conclusions and Directions for Future Research 27 5. Fujianese Migration to Europe 30 5.1. The Research 30 5.2. Findings 31 5.3. Policy Implications 36 Notes 40 References 42 Appendix 48 3 4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report presents some of the main findings of a research project on Fujianese migration to Europe entitled, At the Margin of the Chinese World System: The Fuzhou Diaspora in Europe.1 Among the new Chinese migrants, the Fujianese are an import- ant flow, part (although by no means all) of which is irregular. Fujianese snakeheads have rapidly become the most visible expression of some of the changes taking place in Chinese migration worldwide, not least in Europe. A more detailed discussion of the characteristics of this flow will help to highlight some of the most salient issues and the policy choices confronting the governments of sending and receiving areas alike. The report begins first, with an overview of Chinese migration to Europe with a particular focus on developments in the last 15 years. Drawing on recent scholarship and other available sources of data, this part of the report identifies the main gaps in our knowledge and suggests areas for future research. The overview of the main trends in Chinese migration to Europe serves as a backdrop for the presentation of some of the preliminary findings of a study on one particular flow of Chinese who have re- cently received considerable attention in the media and from policy-makers, namely migrants from the central and western parts of Fujian province. This part of the re- port concludes with identifying the implications of the study’s findings for policy making and migration management. In the appendix, estimates and statistics are given from several sources on the number of resident Chinese and Chinese immigration to Europe. Four general trends can be discerned that have fundamentally reshaped Chinese migration to Europe since the 1970s. 1. After the Second World War, Britain, France and the Netherlands were the coun- tries with the largest Chinese communities. These countries continue to be the core of the European Chinese migration system, from where the Chinese spread across the semi-periphery of central and northern Europe (Germany, Belgium, Switzer- land, Austria and the Nordic countries from the 1970s), and the new frontiers of southern Europe from the 1980s and eastern Europe from the 1990s. 2. Migration from the old overseas Chinese home areas in Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong started afresh during the final years of the Maoist era (mid-1970s) and quickly globalized and professionalized, reaching out beyond the traditional areas of destination. In the 1980s, Europe, too, was included in these new, global migrat- ory flows of mass migration. 5 3. Renewed emigration from old overseas Chinese areas is joined by new types of Chinese emigration from a variety of urban backgrounds and areas. Although ini- tially mainly directed to North America and Australia, students, businessmen and women, and redundant urban workers currently make their way to Europe in in- creasing numbers. In this regard eastern Europe sets the pattern that western Eur- ope is only now beginning to follow. 4. Both emigration from traditional overseas areas and from China’s cities are be- coming increasingly trans-national in nature. Chinese no longer migrate to one particular country. Migration is but one (and not necessarily the first) step in an increasingly cosmopolitan life. As a corollary, Chinese emigration no longer simply is the move to the centres of a world system fully dominated by the West, but is just as much an aspect of the outward extension of a world system centred on China itself. In other words, international migration, or better, international mobility as Chinese increasingly move back and forth as part of a cosmopolitan life, is becom- ing just one aspect of the globalization of Chinese society, culture and economy. 6 1. AN OVERVIEW OF CHINESE MIGRATION TO EUROPE BEFORE 19802 Before 1945, two main types of migratory flows from China can be distinguished. First, many Chinese came to Europe as contract labourers, much like the Chinese coolies in South-East Asia, South Africa and the Americas half a century earlier. Cantonese seamen waiting for recruitment in western Europe’s main harbour cities (London, Liverpool, Rotterdam, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Antwerp) helped European shipping companies break the power of the unions of European sailors (Bowles, 1992; Eberstein, 1988; Knödel, 1995; Pang, 1993; Parker, 1998; Pieke and Benton, 1998). Chinese contract labour also played an important role in opening up Russia’s Far East before the Revolution of 1917 (Larin, 1998). The Allied forces in the First World War recruited well over one hundred thousand labourers from Shandong, Shanghai and Zhejiang.3 Contract workers who had stayed in Russia after 1917 helped the Bol- sheviks in their war against the Whites (Larin, 1998). Second, peddlers and traders from southern Zhejiang province and to a much lesser extent Shandong province found their way overland to Moscow and Berlin and across the sea to Marseilles and Paris. From there, they scattered all across the continent, although curiously enough not to Britain (Thunø, 1999). In western Europe, the Cantonese seamen and Zhejiangese peddlers were the pi- oneers who formed the core of communities that grew rapidly in the 1920s and which, after temporary setbacks caused by the Great Depression and the Second World War, again expanded swiftly after the war. During the post-war boom, these pioneers set up migration chains along which new arrivals joined their kin and fellow villagers already in Europe. After the Second World War, the single most important development was the com- mencement of large-scale immigration from the New Territories in Hong Kong (Watson, 1976) and on a smaller scale from Malaysia and Singapore. When migration from the People’s Republic of China halted, Hong Kong became the chief supplier of labour for the booming catering trade in western Europe, first in Britain and the Netherlands and subsequently in Belgium, Germany, and Scandinavia. More modest numbers are now also found in France and southern Europe. Political factors also played an important role in promoting or inhibiting migration after the Second World War. First, the establishment of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 made it increasingly difficult for prospective migrants in the Zhejiang and Guangdong home communities to join friends and relatives in Europe, leaving 7 continental western Europe to the eastward expansion of the Hong Kong Chinese community in Britain.