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VARIATION IN PAST TENSE MARKING IN BEQUIA CREOLE: APPARENT TIME CHANGE AND DIALECT LEVELLING Agata Daleszynska Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Linguistics and English Language The University of Edinburgh 2011 Abstract Research in the Caribbean often links global phenomena (e.g. increased tourism) to changes in lifestyles and mindsets taking place in this part of the world (Curtis, 2009). I examine the direction, intensity, and motivations of language changes among adolescents in three communities in Bequia (St. Vincent and the Grenadines) considering the socio-economic transformations affecting the island. Data for this study was obtained using a combination of sociolinguistic interviews and conversations between Bequia adolescents and their grandparents recorded in the course of several fieldwork trips. Three villages in Bequia were considered, Hamilton, Paget Farm and Mount Pleasant, characterised by different patterns of settlement and socio- economic development. I investigate variation between: (i) creole verb stems vs. Standard English verb inflections (e.g. I go yesterday vs. I went yesterday), and (ii) verb stems and verb inflections vs. creole preverbal markers (e.g. I bin play yesterday). A variety of grammatical, discourse- specific, functional, and cognitive constraints are tested to determine which factors condition the variable patterns across different communities and age groups, and how linguistically similar/different these communities are. Results of the quantitative multivariate analysis of variation between bare verbs and inflected verbs show dialect levelling (Kerswill, 2003) among adolescents in Hamilton and Paget Farm and a transmission of the system (Labov, 2007) from the older generation to the younger in Mount Pleasant. In addition, adolescents in Paget Farm have recycled (Dubois and Horvath, 1999) a stigmatised creole form, preverbal bin, and are using it significantly more than any other group on the island. The study points to several important conclusions. Firstly, it emphasises the necessity for a multidisciplinary perspective in accounting for the factors which condition language change, especially in such a diverse and fast developing setting as the present-day Caribbean. Secondly, it supports the research on language and globalisation emphasising the relationship between the local and the global (e.g. Meyerhoff and Niedzielski, 2003). Finally, the study attempts to determine the nature of variation in creole languages as e.g. a creole continuum or co-existing systems, and establish replicable methods for measuring linguistic similarities/differences between communities. i Declaration I hereby declare that this thesis is of my own composition, and that it contains no material previously submitted for any other degree of professional qualification. The work reported in this thesis has been executed by myself except where due acknowledgment is made in the text. Agata Daleszynska August 2011 ii Acknowledgments Finishing this thesis seemed in tougher moments like an impossible task and may well have been without the support, help, and love of many people. I would like to take this opportunity to express my undying gratitude to all of you. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Miriam Meyerhoff for her professional and personal support. She has been, and will always remain an inspiration for me. Thank you for all that you have taught, for all the great chats we’ve had, for the time you’ve spent helping me develop as a scholar, and as a person, but most of all – for always being on my side. I would also like to thank the College of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University of Edinburgh for their financial assistance throughout the period of this degree, and to other funding bodies for enabling me to conduct my research, travel, and participate in academic conferences: George Scott scholarship, Small Project Grant, and Research Support grants of PPLS. This PhD would not exist if it wasn’t for Bequia and its people. My fieldwork in Bequia was an amazing experience thanks to their help and support. First, I would like to thank Ms Vernette Woods and the principal Ms Elaine Ollivierre for their help in the initial phase of data collection. I would also like to thank other teachers of Bequia Community High School, especially Obdulia Lindstedt. Of course, the project would never have worked without the help of the students of Bequia Community High School. I’m so grateful for your cooperation and patience. Special thanks go to the girls from the Bequia Community High School Basketball Team (it been great fun workin wit allyo!). Other special thanks go to Amescia Hanson and Veann Telemaque for their help with data transcription, and to Curtis Osborne for being a great friend. Three people in particular deserve special thanks who made my stay in Bequia truly unforgettable: Bill Livingston (Uncle Bill) for his big heart, Solana Gooding for being my Bequia angel, and most of all, Georgia Howland for being an amazing friend, and for sharing the joys and hardships of living in Bequia (and we had plenty of both!). Linguistics and English Language at the UoE has been a great place for academic research. I have been working alongside many distinguished scholars who have provided invaluable feedback on numerous occasions. Most of all I would like to thank Graeme Trousdale for his help during the final stages of writing up. I would also like to thank the following people: Claire Cowie, Caroline Heycock, Lauren Hall-Lew, and Erik Schleef (now at the University of Manchester). iii I would like to express my deep gratitude to Bill Labov and Gillian Sankoff for hosting and taking great care of me during the term at the University of Pennsylvania. Also, thank you to the graduate students of Linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania for their support and friendship. During my PhD I have been lucky to have met and befriend a number of scholars who have helped me on many occasions for which I am grateful. In particular, I would like to thank: Lynn Clark, for her support and advice when I needed it most, Joanna Kopaczyk, the first person who inspired me to be an academic, Norma Mendoza-Denton and Nancy Niedzielski for their feedback and support, and for hosting me during my stay in America, and last but not least, James Walker for his cooperation on a number of projects, data sharing, and invaluable feedback. Two people deserve special thanks: Daniel Ezra Johnson for all the help with statistics and for his infinite patience, and Scott F. Kiesling, for all the generous support, feedback, and friendship. Next, I would never be here without the love and support of my friends, especially my fellow PhD students from the UoE. First, it is hard to find the exact words which would express my gratitude to Chie Adachi, who’s had my back all the way through this, and who’s always been on my side. Thank you to my fellow Pole, and a great friend Anna Banas, not just for our endless inspiring talks about linguistics, but also for your faith in me and support. May all our future plans come together (except for the Burger King one…). Special thanks also go to Ifigenia Papageorgiou, Remco Knooihuizen, and to my office mates and members of the Language in Context Research Group. I would also like to thank Rebecca Tomkinson Marsh and Priscilla Liu (University of Arizona) for their kindness and friendship during my stay in the States. I would also like to thank my friends outside academia, both in Poland and in Edinburgh. Huge thanks go to my teammates at the Edinburgh University Basketball Club (in particular I’d like to thank Cathy Mitchell for sharing the EUBC experience with me for four years and Dana Rose for supporting me on and off the court). My biggest gratitude goes of course to my family, my parents, Dorota and Jaroslaw Daleszynscy and my amazing sister Kasia Marczak. Without their belief in me, their love and tremendous support I would never have achieved this. I’m so lucky to have a family like you! Last but definitely not least I would like to thank my fiancé John Watson. Really, there are not enough words to express how much I’m grateful for everything you’ve done for me, and for everything we’ve shared. Love you. iv Table of Contents Abstract .………………………………………………………………………………….….i Declaration ……………………………………………………………………….……...….ii Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………..….…iii List of Images ……………………….…………………………………………….………..ix List of Maps …………………………………………………………………………...…….x List of Figures ……………………………………………………………………….…......xi List of Tables ………………………………………………………………….……….…..xii List of Abbreviations ……………………………………………….……………….……xv