Imaginaries of Oceanic Histories in Oral and Written Texts from the Kenyan Coast Jauquelyne Kosgei Thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at Stellenbosch University Supervisors: Prof. Tina Steiner Dr. Uhuru Phalafala Department of English Studies December 2020 Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Declaration By submitting this thesis electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification. December 2020 Copyright © 2020 Stellenbosch University All rights reserved i Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Dedication For Chirchir, my son, My forever first, second and third. ii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Abstract This dissertation presents an analysis of selected oral and written texts from the Kenyan coast, with the view of interrogating how differently local oral sources, which have been ignored, suppressed, and omitted for centuries, imagine the Indian Ocean, its histories, and its experience at the Kenyan coast, in comparison to texts written from foreign perspectives. The main objective of this study is to explore the potential of local sources in introducing new facts and alternative perspectives that challenge the narrow view of dominant narratives and instigate us to rethink our understanding of the subject matter. To achieve this, this study pursues two issues. First, it probes the writing of history by interrogating the choices historians and writers of historical fiction make when selecting which sources to use and which ones to eliminate; which perspectives to include and which ones to exclude; which histories to tell and which ones to silence; and consequently, which people to focus on and which ones to marginalise. Following the premise that local oral sources were intentionally left out in the writing of the history of the Kenyan coast, this dissertation attempts to rewrite certain histories of the Kenyan coast using oral history. The outcome is a version of history that fills gaps in written history, provides diverging perspectives, reveals new facts, and narrates history from the perspective of the local people at the Kenyan coast. The second issue this dissertation pursues is a study of the Indian Ocean using indigenous knowledges of the sea that Kenyan coastal people possess. This places the shore folk and seafarers at the centre of oceanic studies. Through exploring embodied, experiential, and intuitive knowledges carried in local sources, this study shifts oceanic studies from surface to depth; produces multiple dimensions of the sea; and imagines a map of the sea that is local, intimate, and personal, one that dominant cartographic techniques would otherwise not capture. iii Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Opsomming Hierdie tesis dra ‘n analiese van uitgesoekte mondelinge en geskrewe tekste uit die kus van Kenya voor, met die doel om te interrogeer hoe plaaslikke mondelinge bronne, wat vir eeue verwerp, onderdruk, of uitgelate was, die Indiese Oseaan, sy geskiedenise, en ervarings by die Kenya Kus, voorstel in vergelyking met tekste geskrewe uit ‘n vreemde. perspektief. Die hoof doel van hierdie studie is om die potensiaal van plaaslikke bronne wat die beknopte seining van heersende verhaale uit daag, te verken en ons aanstood om ons verstaan van die vak te herdink. Om dit te bereik,volg hierdie studie twee sake. Eerstens, bevraagteken dit die skryf van gekiedenis deur die keuses van geskiedkundige en fiksie skrywers te ondersoek in terme hul keuse van bronne wat hulle gebruik of uit laat.; watter perspektiewe om in te sluit of uit te laat, watter geskiedenis om te vertel of stil te hou., en as gevolg, wie (watter mense) op gefokus word en wie vervreem word. Volgens die vermoede dat plaaslike mondelinge bronne doelbewus uit die skryf van die kus van Kenya geskiedenis uitgelaat is, prober hierdie studie om sekere geskiedenis van dìe kus van Kenya herskryf deur gebruik te maak van mondelinge geskiedenis. Die uitkoms is ‘n geskiedkungige weergawe wat gapings vul in geskrewe geskiedis, uiteenlopende perspektiewe voorsien, nuwe feite onthul, en geskiedenis vertel uit die perspektief van plaaslike mense uit die kus van Kenya. Die tweede vraag wat hierdie studie na streef is ‘n studie van die Indise Oseaan deur gebruik te maak van inheemse kennise van die see wat die Kenya kus inwoners besit. Dit plaas die kus volk en seevaarders in die middle van oseaan studies. Deur die ondersoek van beliggaamde, ervaringsleer, en aanvoellende kennise teenwoordig in plaaslike bronne, skuif hierdie studie, oseaan studies van oppervlakkig na diep; vervaardig veelvoudige dimensies van die see; en stel ‘n kaart van die see voor wat plaaslik, intiem, en persoonlik is, een wat andersins nie deur oorheersende kartografiese tegnieke opgeneem kan word nie. iv Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Ikisiri Tasnifu hii inatoa uchambuzi wa maandishi yaliyochaguliwa katika fasihi simulizi na fasihi andishi kutoka pwani ya Kenya, kwa nia ya kuhoji jinsi vyanzo tofauti vya fasihi simulizi, ambavyo vimepuuzwa, kukandamizwa, na kuachwa kwa karne nyingi, vinafikiria Bahari ya Hindi, historia zake, na uzoefu wake katika pwani ya Kenya, ikilinganishwa na maandishi yaliyoandikwa kutoka kwa mtazamo wa wajinabi. Lengo kuu la utafiti huu ni kuchunguza uwezekano wa machimbuko ya asili katika kuingiza ukweli mpya na mtazamo mbadala inayopinga mtazamo finyu wa masimulizi makuu na kutusukumiza kufikiri tena kuhusu mada. Ili kufanikisha ili, utafiti huu unafuatilia maswala mawili. Kwanza, inachunguza maandishi ya historia kwa kuhoji chaguo wanayofanya wanahistoria na waandishi wa historia ya kubuni katika kuchagua ni chimbuko lipi litakalotumika au kutolewa; mitazamo ipi itajumuishwa na ipi haitajumuishwa; historia zipi za kusemwa na zipi za kutosema; na hivyo, ni kina nani watazingatiwa au kutengwa. Kufuatia dhana kuwa machimbuko asilia ya fasihi simulizi viliachwa kimakusudi katika uandishi wa historia ya pwani ya Kenya, tasnifu hii inakusudi kuandika tena historia fulani ya pwani ya Kenya kutumia fasihi simulizi ya historia. Matokeo ni aina ya historia inayojaza pengo katika historia andishi, kutoa mitazamo mbalimbali, kufichua ukweli mpya, na kukariri historia kutoka mtazamo wa wenyeji wa pwani ya Kenya. Suala la pili linalofuatiliwa na tasnifu hii ni uchunguzi wa Bahari ya Hindi kutumia maarifa asilia inayomilikiwa na wenyeji wa Pwani ya Kenya. Hii inaweka hadithi ya pwani na wasafiri wa bahari kipaumbele katika masomo ya bahari. Kupitia uchunguzi wa yaliyomo, uzoefu, na maarifa angavu iliyofanywa katika machimbuko asilia, utafiti huu unabadilisha masomo ya bahari kutoka kwa msingi hadi kina, hutoa mielekezo nyingi ya bahari; na kutoa ramani ya bahari ambayo ni asili, wa ndani, ya kibinafsi, na moja ambayo mbinu za uchoraji wa ramani haingeweza kuijumuisha. v Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za Acknowledgements I have had the privilege of working with Prof. Tina Steiner and Dr. Uhuru Phalafala, without whom this dissertation would not have materialised. Their insightful and inspiring comments, and their encouragement throughout this journey transformed a once distant idea into what I have now. My heartfelt appreciation goes to them. I am indebted to, among others, Mzee Suleimann Ali Nyembwe, Bahati Ngazi, Mzee Juma, Bwana Baraka, Bwana Jabari, and Mvuvi Kazungu Charo, with whom I walked through histories of the Kenyan coast and dived into the world of the Indian Ocean. Without their generosity, openness, and willingness to share a massive wealth of knowledge with me, this research would be incomplete. I would not have conducted a successful fieldwork were it not for the support of Bi. Kauchi Chivumba, Hassan Mazuri, Roda, Mwabili, and Godfrey Ikahu, and, as always, the hospitality of Diani Beach. Asanteni sana. Kevin Mosigisi, thank you for lending me the quality data recording equipment. Many thanks to the Graduate School of Arts and Social Sciences, Stellenbosch University, who offered me a scholarship to pursue my PhD. Dr. Cindy Lee Steenekamp, Ms. Tanja Malan, and Ms. Chandre Smith, thank you for the generous logistical support you provided for me. I am also grateful to the University of Nairobi, the PANGeA partner that recommended me for this scholarship. Prof. Peter Wasamba, especially, has been very helpful – thank you, Prof. The Department of Literature at the University of Nairobi prepared me for this: thanks to Prof. Peter Wasamba and Dr. Kimingichi Wabende for training me to be a researcher in oral literature; to my referees and previous supervisors Dr. George Outa and Dr. Masumi Odari; to Dr. Godwin Siundu, for supporting me right from the conceptual stage of this study; to my friend Dr. Miriam Musonye; and to Prof. Kithaka wa Mberia and Prof. Yuhjin Park from the Department of Linguistics, for always encouraging me to push on tenaciously. I also acknowledge the support of the Oceanic Humanities for the Global South project at WiSER in the University of the Witwatersrand, who introduced me to a vibrant world of oceanic studies research. Many thanks to Prof. Isabel Hofmeyr and Dr. Charne Lavery who invited me to give a