Participatory Implementation: The Gender Dimension in the Implementation of Community-Level Projects in Ghana by Charles Boadi Kessey To be presented, with the permission of the Faculty of Social Sciences of the University of Helsinki, for public discussion in Auditorio U 35 L S of the University of Helsinki, Unioninkatu 35, on 5th November 2004 at 12 o’clock noon. University of Helsinki, Finland. 2 Academic dissertation by Charles Boadi Kessey [email protected] Supervisor: Professor Turo Virtanen Department of Political Science University of Helsinki Finland. Pre-examiners: Professor Jane Parpart- Lester Pearson Professor of International Development Studies, Dalhousie University, Canada Professor Aili Mari Tripp, Associate Dean of International Studies, Director of the Women’s Studies Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA. Kustos: Professor Markku Kiviniemi Opponent: Professor Kathleen Staudt Department of Political Science, Director of the Center for Civic Engagement. University of Texas at El Paso, USA. ISSN 0515-3093 ISBN 952-91-7911-1 (paperback) ISBN 952-10-2186-1 (PDF) Helsinki University Printing House Helsinki 2004 2 Dedication Dedicated to my parents who though illiterate were firmly convinced that education was a key to personal success and societal development; hence, their unflinching support and encouragement. 2 Table of Contents Dedication ....................................................................................................................................................3 Table of Contents.........................................................................................................................................4 List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................6 List of Tables ...............................................................................................................................................6 List of Figures..............................................................................................................................................7 Acknowledgements....................................................................................................................................11 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................................19 1.1. The Background to Pamscad.....................................................................................................22 1.2. The Nature of SAP and Why Structural Adjustment................................................................25 1.3. Background and Problem Conceptualization.................................................................................27 1.4. Discussion.......................................................................................................................................33 1.5. The Structure of the Study..............................................................................................................35 2. The Theoretical Framework ..............................................................................................................38 2.1. Participation as a Factor in the Study’s Theoretical Framework ..................................................40 2.2. Development as an Outcome of Participatory Implementation ....................................................44 2.3. The Implementation Process as a Factor within the Study’s Theoretical Framework .................47 2.3.1 Implementation as Evolutionary and Learning Processes.......................................................50 2.3.2 Top-down and Bottom-up Approaches....................................................................................51 2.4. The Main Theories of Development ..............................................................................................53 2.4.1 Modernization Theory..............................................................................................................53 2.4.2 Dependency Theory..................................................................................................................55 2.4.3 World System theory................................................................................................................57 2.5. The Alternative Development Paradigm........................................................................................58 2.6. Methodology...................................................................................................................................61 2.6.1 An Overview of Ghana and the Study Regions.......................................................................61 2.6.2 The Structuring of Data Collection..........................................................................................65 2.6.3 The Field Work Experience .....................................................................................................72 2.7. Limitations......................................................................................................................................74 3. Women’s Participation in both the Traditional and Secular Administrations .....................................77 3.1. The Nature and Composition of the Traditional Administration ..................................................77 3.2. Some General Functions of a Chief and Queen Mother................................................................81 3.3. Gender Contradictions within Akan Traditional Society ..............................................................84 3.4. The ‘Traditional Civil Society’ and the Space Provided for Restraining Traditional Administrative Excesses........................................................................................................................87 3.5. The Level of Economic Participation of Ghanaian Women..........................................................91 3.6. The Political Participation of Women at the Local and National Levels......................................93 3.7 What Accounts for Low Female Political Participation? ...............................................................99 3.9. Discussion.....................................................................................................................................107 4. The General Administrative and Decision-making Structures of Pamscad and its Affiliated Gender Sub-Programmes.........................................................................................................................109 4.1. The Non-Participatory Nature of the Decision-making Structure of Pamscad...........................112 4.2. An Overview of the Selected Local Level Projects in the Study Regions.................................117 4.2.1 Pamscad Credit Line for Small Scale Enterprise (PCLSSE).................................................118 4.2.2 Women’s Community Development Projects (WCDP)........................................................121 4.2.3. Enhancing Opportunities for Women in Development (ENOWID)....................................125 4.2.4 The Organisational Structure of Enowid ...............................................................................129 4. 3. Organizational Capacity as a Basis for Enhancing Participation ...............................................135 4.3.1 The Local Level (Women’s Group).......................................................................................136 4.3.2 The Institutional Level (GIAs)...............................................................................................140 4.4. The Participatory Control System................................................................................................143 4.5. The Normal and Controlled Participatory Implementation Models as Prototypes for Local Level Projects ......................................................................................................................................145 4.6. The Participation of Traditional Rulers as Partners in Development..........................................153 4 4.7. Discussion.....................................................................................................................................154 5. The Pattern of the Enowid Loan Administration and Leadership..................................................158 5.1. Loan Recovery and Sanction Regime..........................................................................................161 5.2. Participatory Group-Based or Collateral Security and Recommended Defaulters’ Counselling and Training Services......................................................................................................166 5.3. Participatory Cost–Sharing and the Author’s Position on Enhancing Outcome ........................170 5.4. The Sustenance of Participation through Financial Motivation ..................................................174 5.5. Enhancing Capacity-Building through Leadership and Training as Mechanisms for Effective Participation .........................................................................................................................................178 5.6. Discussion.....................................................................................................................................188 6. The Level of Empowerment Gained by the Women’s